1、The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications （as the recovery of speech ability） is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic princip
2、les and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important d
3、istinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescr
4、iptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a
5、language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics re
6、gards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger
7、 load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of
8、langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of lingui
9、stics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the ling
10、uists is to discover and specify the language rules. 4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomskys definiti
11、on is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from
12、 any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary. Example: different soun
13、ds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences
14、 they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are pres
15、ent or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitte
16、d, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the
17、 two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of soun
18、ds is of greater importance than that of writing. The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language （语言的声音媒介） . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2What is phonetics?什么是
19、语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.There are three branches of phonetics. They are:Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view. It studies how a
20、 speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the p
21、hysical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.3. Organs of speech发音器官The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It ma
22、y also be modified in the larynx （喉） before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis （声门） are the vocal cords （声带）. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound. The tongue is the most
23、 flexible in the oral cavity.4. Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions语音的书写形式宽式和窄式音标IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols （字母符号） only, called broad transcription （宽式音标
24、）. The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符号）, called narrow transcription （窄式音标）.实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符
25、号Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号II5. Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类a） Classification of English consonants英语辅音的分类按发音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z s h Affricate 塞擦音：tdLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：m n Glide滑音：w j按发音部位分Bilabial
26、双唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齿音：f vDental齿音： Alveolar齿龈音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：tdiVelar软腭音：k g Glottal声门音：hB） Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：Front vowel前元音：i: i e a Central vowel中元音：: Back vowel后元音：u: u : a:按口形的大小分：Close vowel闭元音： i u: uSemi-close vowel半闭元音：e :Open vowel开元音： aSemi-op
27、en vowel半开元音： : a:按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音： i e a :rounded vowel圆唇元音： 按语音的长短分Long vowel长元音i: :a: u:Short vowel短元音i e a u 在元音中还有一些（diphthong）双元音，包括：ei ai u a u i i e u6. Phonology 音系学Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general
28、nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.单词leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但
