1、新编语言学教程课后答案 (1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning. (2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that
2、it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it. (3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names. (4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is dened as observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psyc
3、hology. (5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning of an expression is determined by its use in communication and more generally, in social interaction. (6) sense: the inherent part of an expressions meaning, together with the context, determines its referent. For example, kn
4、owing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George (7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events
5、and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (referent) in the real world. (8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meani
6、ng. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he” in English is any male person or male animal. (9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or a
7、 combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purely conceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” is emotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc. (10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into asystem which shows their relati
8、onship to one another. For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic eld whose relevant features include generation, sex, membership of the fathers or mothers side of family. (11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a sem
9、antic eld of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male” and “female” cousin. (12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or seman
10、tic features. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as +human+male-adult. (13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of word may be described as a combination of semantic components or features. For example, the feature +male is part of the me
11、aning of father, and so is the feature +adult, but other features are needed to make up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of + and -, e.g. woman has the semantic features +human, -male and +adult. (14) synonym: the sense rela
12、tions of equivalence of meaning between lexical items, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased. (15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad. (16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a mo
13、re particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not only sections of the body but dened in terms of specic functions. For example, the
14、head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue. (18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause. (19) entailme
15、nt: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the rst is true, the second must be true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utteranc
16、e meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank. a. He waited by the nancial institution which people can keep their money in or borrowfrom. b. He waited by the bank of the river. (2) Is he really that kind?
17、 a. Is he really that type of person? b. Is he really that kind-hearted? (3) We bought her dog biscuits. a. We bought dog biscuits for her. b. We bought biscuits for her dog. (4) He saw that gasoline can explode. a. He saw that gasoline container explode. b. He saw that gasoline may explode. (5) Fif
18、ty soldiers shot three wild foxes. a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total. b. Each of the fty soldiers shot three wild foxes. (6) He saw her drawing pencils. a. He saw her pencils for drawing. b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are
19、 synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpful iron: strong, brave, hard, determined mole: traitor, betrayal, spy snow: pure, virgin, clean street: homeless, living hard, pitiable 5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory (2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell (3) a. buy, w
20、in, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot be des
21、cribed by using the name of another member ofthe same eld.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace, househomonyms: ear. 7. In a semantic eld, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less marked members of the same semantic eld (1) are usu
22、ally easier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of another member of the same eld; (4) tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaning than more m
23、arked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human. The (b) words are animals. (2) a. ask,
24、 tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, holler The (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality. The (b) words are produced by modifying ones normal voice quality. (3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swim b. y, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, han
25、g-glide The (a) and (b) words are sports (movement). The (a) words are sports without instruments. The (b) words are sports with instruments.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations with res
26、pect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance. (3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. (4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to ano
27、ther word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation. (5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!” (6) Speech Act Theory: The theor
28、y was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology. (7) indirect speech act: an uttera
29、nce whose literal meaning (location) and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action. (8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Gri
30、ce whereby those involved in communication assume that both parties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner. (9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a means o
31、r strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requires speakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity,
32、 Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.(10) conversational implicature: the use of conversational maxims in the Cooperative Principle to produce extra meaning during conversation. 2. Deictic expressions: I, now, you, that, here, tomorrow.3. Anaphoric expressions: she, him, it.4. (1) He bought the beer.(2) You have a watch.(3) We bought a car.5. Direct acts: (1)/(5); Indirect acts: (2)/(3)/(4) 6. (a) The Maxim of Quality: (1) Do not say what you believe to be false; (2) Do not say th
