土木工程英语论文.docx
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土木工程英语论文.docx
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土木工程英语论文
土木工程英语论文
StructureofBulidings
Abuildingiscloselyboundupwithpeople,foritprovidespeoplewiththenecessaryspacetoworkandlivein.Asclassifiedbytheiruse,buildingsaremainlyoftwotypes:
industrialbuildingsandcivilbuildings.Industrialbuildingsareusedbyvariousfactoriesorindustrialproductionwhilecivilbuildingsarethosethatareusedbypeoplefordwelling,employment,educationandothersocialactivities.
Theconstructionofindustrialbuildingsisthesameasthatofcivilbuildings.However,industrialandcivilbuildingsdifferinthematerialused,andinthestructureformsorsystemstheyareused.
Consideringonlytheengineeringessentials,thestructureofabuildingcanbedifinedastheassemblageofthosepartswhichexistforthepurposeofmaintainingshapeandstability.Isprimypurposeistoresistanyloadsappliedtothebuildingandtotransmitthosetotheground.
Intermsofarchitecture,thestructueofabuildingisanddosemuchmorethanthat.Itisaninseparablepartofthebuildingformtovaryingdegreesisageneratorofthatform.Usedskillfully,thebuildingstructurecanestablishorreinforceordersandrhythmsamongthearchitecturevolumesandplanes.Itcanbevisuallydominantorrecessive.Itcandevelopharmoniesorconflicts.Itcan
materialthatisverystrongbutlackinginstiffnesswilldeformtoomuchtobeofvalueinresistingtheforcesapplied.
Economyofabuildingstructurereferstomorethanjustthecostofthematerialused.Constructioneconomyisacomplicatedsubjectinvovlingrawmaterials,fabrication,erection,andmaintenance.Designandconstructionlaborcostsandthecostsofenergyconsumptionmoney(interest)areconsumptionmustbeconsiedered.Speedofconstructionandthecostofmoney(interest)arealsofactors.Inmostdesignsituations,morethanonestructuralmaterialrequiresconsideration.Completivealternativesalmostalwaysexist,andthechoiceisseldomobvious.
Apartformthesethreeprimaryrequirements,severalotherfactorsareworthyofemphasis.First,thestructureorsuctructuralsystemmustrelatetothebuilding’sfunction.Itshouldnotbeinconflictintermsofform.Forexample,alinearfunctiondemandsalinearstructure,andthereforeitwouldbeimpropertoroofabowlingalleywithadome.Similarly,atheatermusthavelarge,unobstructedspansbutafinerestaurantprobablyshouldnot.Statedsimply,thestructuremustbeappropriatetothefunctionitistoshelter.
Second,thestructuremustbefire-resistant.Itisobviousthatthestructuralsystemmustbeabletomaintainitsintegrityatleastuntiltheoccupuantsaresafelyout.Buildingcodesspecifythenumberofhoursforwhichcertainpartsofabuildingmustresisttheheatwithoutcollapse.Thestructuralmaterialsusedforthoseelementsmustbeinherentlyfire-resistantorbeadequentlyprotectedbyfireproofingmaterials.Thedegreeoffireresistancetobeprovidedwilldependuponanumberofitems,includingtheuseandoccupancyloadofthespace,itsdimensions,andthelocationofthebuilding.
Third,thestructureshouldintegratewellwiththebuilding’scirculationsystems.Itshouldnotbeinconflictwiththepipingsystemsforwaterandwaste,theductingsystemsforair,or(mostimportant)themovementofpeople.Itisobviousthatthevariousbuildingsystemsmustbecoordinatedasthedesignprogresses.Onecandesigninasequentialstep-by-stepmannerwithinanyonesystem,butthedesignofallofthemshouldmoveinaparallelmannertowardcompletion.Spatially,allthevariouspartsofabuildingareinterdependent.
Fourth,thestructuremustbepsychologicallysafeaswellasphysicallysafe.Ahighriseframethatswaysconsiderablyinthewindmightnotactuallybedangerousbutmaymakethebuildinguninhabitablejustthesame.Ligheweightfloorsystemsthataretoo“bouncy”canmaketheusersveryuncomfortable.Largeglasswindows,uninterruptedbydividingmotions,canbuquitesafebutwillappearveryinsecuretotheoccupantstandingnexttoon40floorsabovethestreet.
Sometimesthearchitectmustmakedeliberateattemptstoincreasetheapparentstrengthorsolidnessofthestructure.Thisapparentsafetymaybemoreimportantthanhonestlyexpressingthebuilding’sstructure,becausetheuntrainedviewercannotdistinguishbetweenrealandperceivedsafety.
Thebuildingdesignerneedstounderstandthebehaviorofphysicalstructuresunderload.Anabilitytointuitor“feel”structuralbehaviorispossessedbythosehavingmuchexperienceinvolvingstructuralanalysis,bothqualitativeandquantitative.Theconsequentknowledgeofhowforces,stresses,anddeformationsbuildupindifferentmaterialsandshapesisvitaltodevelopmentofthis“sense”.
Structuralanalysisistheprocessofdeterminingtheforcesanddeformationsinstructuresduetospecifiedloadssothatthestructurecanbedesignedrationally,andsothatthestateofsafetyofexistingstructurescanbechecked.
Inthedesignofstructures,itisnecessarytostartwithaconceptleadingtoaconfigurationwhichcanthenbeanalyzed.Thisisdonetomemberscanbesizedandtheneededreinforcingdetermined,inorderto:
a)carrythedesignloadswithoutdistressorexcessivedeformations(serviceabilityorworkingcondition);andb)topreventcollapsebeforeaspecifiedoverloadhasbeenplacedonthestructure(safetyorultimatecondition).
Sincenormallyelasticconditionswillprevailunderworkingloads,astructuraltheorybasedontheassumptionsofelasticbehaviorisappropriatefordeterminingserviceabilityconditions.Collapseofastructurewillusuallyoccuronlylongaftertheelasticrangeofthematerialshasbeenexceededatcircalpoints,sothatanultimatestrengththeorybasedontheinelasticbehaviorofthematerialisnecessaryforarationaldeterminationofthesafetyofastructureagainstcollapse.Neverthelese,anelastictheorycanbeusedtodetermineasafeapproximationtothestrengthofductilestructures(thelowerboundapproachofplasticity),andthisapproachiscustomarilyfollowedinreinforcedconcretepractice.Forthisreasiononlytheelastictheoryofgtructureispursuedinthischapter.
Lookedatcritically,allstructuresareassembliesofthree-dimensionalelements,theexactanalysisofwhichisaforbddingtaskevenunderidealconditionsandimpossibletocontemplateunderconditionsofprofessionalpractice.Forthisreason,animportantpartoftheanalyst’sworkisthesimplificationoftheactualstructureandloadingconditionstoamodelwhichissusceptibletorationalanalysis.
Thus,astructuralframingsystemisdecomposedintoaslabandfloorbeamswhichinturnframeintogirderscarriedbycolumswhichtransmittheloadstothefoundations.Sincetraditionalstructuralanalysishasbeenunabletocopewiththeactionoftheslab,thishasoftenbeenidealizedintoasystemofstripsactingasbeams.Also,long-handmethodshavebeenunabletocopewiththree-dimensionalframingsystems,sothattheentirestructurehasbeenmodeledbyasystemofplannersubassemblies,tobeanalyzedoneatatime.Themodernmatrix-computermethodshaverevolutionizedstructuralanalysisbymakingitpossibletoanalyzeentriesystems,thusleadingtomorereliablepredictionsaboutthebehaviorofstructuresunderloads.
Actualloadingconditionsarealsobothdifficulttodetermineandtoexpressrealistically,andmustbesimplifiedforpurposesofanalysis.Thus,trafficloadsonabridgestructure,whichareessentiallybothofdynamicandrandomnature,areusuallyidealizedintostaticallymovingstandardtrucks,ordistributedloads,intendedtosimulatethemostsevereloadingconditionsoccurringinpractice.
Similary,continuousbeamsaresometimesreducedtosimplebeams,rigidjointstopin-joints,fillers-wallsareneglected,shearwallsconsideredasbeams;indecidinghowtomodelastructuresoastomakeitreasonablyrealisticbutatthesametimereasonablysimple,theanalystmustrememberthateachsuchidealizationwillmakethesoulationmoresuspect.Themorerealistictheanalysis,thegreaterwillbetheconfidencewhichitinspires,andthesmallermaybethesafetyfactor(orfactorofignorance).Thus,unlesscodeprovisionscontrol,theengineermustevaluatetheextraexpenseofathoroughanalysisascomparedtopossiblesavingsinthestructure.
Themostimportantuseofstructureanalysisisasatoolinstructuraldesign.Assuch,itwillusuallybeapartofatrial-and-errorprocedure,inwhichanassumedconfigurationwithassumeddeadloadsisanalyzed,andthemembersdesignedinaccordancewiththeresultsoftheanalysis.Thisphaseiscalledthepreliminarydesign;sincethisdesignisstillsubjecttochange,usuallyacrude,fastanalysismethodisadequate.Atthisstage,thecostofthestructureisestimated,loadsandmemberpropertiesarerevised,andthedesignischeckedforpossibleimprovements.Thechangesarenowincorporatedinthestructure,amorerefinedanalysisisperformed,andthememberdesignisrevised.Thisprojectiscarriedtoconvergence,therapidityofwhichwilldependonthecapabilityofthedesigner.Itisclearthatavarietyofanalysismethods,rangingfrom“quickanddirtytoexact”,isneededfordesignpurposes.
Anefficientanalystmustthusbeincommandoftherigorousmethodsofanalysis,mustbeabletoreducethesetoshortcutmethodsbyappropriateassumptions,andmustbeawareofavailabledesignandanalysisaids,aswellassimplificationpermittedbyapplicablebuildingcodes.Anup-to-dateanalystmustlikewisebeversedinthebasesofmatrixstructuralanalysisanditsuseindigitalcomputersaswella
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