文献翻译.docx
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文献翻译.docx
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文献翻译
英文参考文献及其翻译
Value-basedlocalizationstrategiesofautomobilesubsidiariesinThailand
Onthecontrary,thosewhoargueagainstlocalizationfocusmainlyonlocalizationversusstandardizationofproductsandprocesses.Forexample,Levitt(1983)observedthatalthoughlocalizingproductsandpracticeshelpsmultinationalcompaniesrespondbetterthanapplyingaglobalstandard,itresultsinhighercosts;incontrast,globalcorporationsemploystandardizationasameanstokeepcostslowandremaincompetitive.Inthecaseoftheautomobileindustry,HowellandHsu(2002)favoredaglobalizationstrategy,indicatingthatadoptingaglobalnetworkofallianceswouldhelpGMreduceresearchanddevelopmentcosts.Fujimoto(2000),ontheotherhand,pointedouttheadvantageoflocalizationofnewproductdevelopmentactivityinhelpingtoincorporate“localinformation”aboutproduction,sales,andconsumption,whilestandardizationofproductslendstheadvantageofeconomiesofscaleandscope.Insummary,areviewoftheliteraturerelatedtolocalizationidentifiedtwosalientissues:
(1)Discussionsonlocalizationoftenfocusonalimitedscope,suchasproductadaptationoruseoflocalresources.Theemphasisisoninputandoutputaspects–i.e.theuseoflocalmaterialsanduseoflocallaborwiththeaimofmakingproductsthatmeetlocaltastes.
(2)Thedecisionwhetherornottoimplementalocalizationstrategyoftendependsonitseconomiccostsandbenefits.ThestudyoflocalizationstrategiesofthesubsidiariesofinternationalautomobilecompaniesinThailand,describedinthispaper,addressesthesetwosalientpoints.
LocalizationofstrategicdecisionmakingLocalizationofstrategicdecisionmakingreferstoappointinglocalstotheboardofdirectorstohelpdeterminestrategicdirection.OnlyJapanesesubsidiariesdidthis.Twoapproacheswerefound:
usingexternalandinternalappointees.ThefirstwasappointingThaisfromoutsidethecompany’sstafftoobtainlocalinformationandstrengthenconnectionswiththelocalcommunity.AtTMT,respectedtop-rankgovernmentofficerswereofferedboardmembershipfortheirinsightsandinformationongovernmentpolicyandeconomicconditionsandtheirinfluenceongovernmentpolicies.ThishelpedTMTsuccessfullylobbythegovernmenttoestablishataxbreakformanufacturingpassengercarsusingpickupplatforms;itthenbecamethefirstautomobilemanufacturertobenefitfromthistaxpolicywhenitlaunchedapickuppassengervehicleintotheThaimarket.Thisapproachthusallowssubsidiariestoimplementstrategyproactivelybyreducinguncertaintyandinvestmentrisk.RecognizingthebenefitoflocalizationinstrategicdecisionmakinginThailand,itsfirstoverseassubsidiary,ToyotaMotorCorporationJapannowusesthisstrategyasaplatformforregionalandglobalstrategies.Inanothertypeofexternalappointment,TMT,HATC,andIMCTallappointedtop-levelThaimanagersofpartnercompaniestoenhancetheirconnectionswithintheThaibusinesscommunityandobtainin-depthmarketinformation.Usingtheexperienceandexpertiseoftheseboardmembersenabled,thesesubsidiariestoimprovetheiroperationalefficiency,minimizingthelearningcurvefornewprojects.TMTimprovedimplementationofnewpromotionandpublicrelationcampaignsandstrategies.IMCT’sexternalboardmembersprovidemarketanalysistohelpitcompetewithTMT,itsmaincompetitor.Thisapproachrunscountertothewesternideathatcompaniesshouldnotappointexternalboardmemberswhohaveabusinessorprofessionalrelationshipwiththecorporationoranaffiliatedenterprise,inordertomaximizetheindependenceoftheboardandimprovethequalityofcorporategovernance(Halletal.,2005).Thesecondapproachwasthroughinternalstaffappointmentstotheboard,whichprovidesthebenefitsoftheexperienceandtacitknowledgethatappointeeshavegainedfromworkingwiththecompany.ThisapproachdevelopsThaiemployees’careerpath,promoteshighertransparencyandgoodgovernanceintheorganization,andhelpsbuildmutualtrustandapositiveattitudebetweenbothparties.Bycontrast,Hammeretal.(1991)foundthatinternalstaffweremadeboardmembersintheUSAusuallybecausetheypurchasedcompanystock,and,inEurope(especiallyScandinavia,Germany,Luxembourg,andAustria),becauselegislationrequiredworkerrepresentationontheboard.BuildingandexploitingthelocalknowledgepoolSubsidiariesbuildandexploitthelocalknowledgepoolbyorganizingsuppliers’anddealers’clubswheremembersshareinformationaboutproblems,remedialactions,newideasandbestpractices.TMT,IMCT,HATC,andDCTHhadformedtheseclubs.Duringclubmeetingsthesuppliershearinformationonwhatcustomersneedinordertoimprovethedesign,appearance,andqualityofpartstomatchcustomerexpectations.Forexample,adealerinformedDCTHthatThaicustomersprefersmoothleatherseats,incontrasttoGermancustomers,whowantleatherwithanatural,wrinkledlook.Usingsuchinformation,DCTHandsupplierscollaboratedtocustomizetheleatherseatdesigntomeetThaipreferences.Sharingmarketknowledgealsoprovidesoperationalbenefits,suchasincreasingqualityandpunctualityofdeliveryandreducingcost.Atthe“ThaiHinoCooperationClub,”Thaimanagers,expatriates,suppliers,anddealersregularlymeetandthrashoutahostofproblemsthatincludequalityofparts,assemblyschedulingandlogisticsdelays.Thediscussionshelpimprovethelearningoflocalstaff,expatriatestaff,suppliers,anddealers.Since,thelaunchofthisclub,thenumberofqualityproblemshasdropped.TMT’sandHACT’ssupplierscommentedthatthesuppliers’clubsmadethemfeelthattheseautomobilecompaniesrecognizedthemasteammembersandaspartofthecompanies’successinwinningThaicustomers’hearts.Thishascreatedofasenseofbelongingamongsuppliersanddealers.Learningfrombestpracticeshelpssuppliersandcompaniesreducecostsincurredfromrepeatingthesamemistakesandhelpsshortenthetimeneededtosolveproblems.HACThasbenefitedbyapplyinglessonslearnedatclubmeetingsfrombest-practicesupplierstoyearlyevaluationsthathavereducedthenumberofworst-performancesuppliers.Additionally,HACTandIMCTqualitymanagementmanagersandengineerscommentedthatcreatingaknowledgepoolhelpedreducethecostofsendingthemanufacturer’sengineerstomonitorqualityperformanceorhelpsolveproblemsatasupplier’splant.ThisisconsistentwithDyerandHatch(2004),whofoundthatsharingknowledgewithasuppliers’networkenabledToyotatocreateasustainablecompetitiveadvantage.DeploymentoflocalhumanresourcesAllsubsidiarieshaverecruitedanincreasingnumberofThaisintomanagementwhiledecreasingthenumberofexpatriates.ThisisconsistentwithLavyandTeramura(1993),whofoundthatJapanesecompaniesattempttopromoteAmericanmanagerstothetoplevelaspartoftheirstrategicemploymenttactics.TheprominentobjectiveofdeployingThaisistoobtainlocalknowledge.Duringthedata-gatheringperiod,onlyAATappointedaThaipresident.ThereasonisthatAATbelievedthatThaisknewbesthowtodealwithThaistakeholders.AsalateentrantintheThaimarket,AAThadtoaccelerateacquisitionofThaimarketknowledgetodesignstrategiestopenetratethatmarket.Additionally,wefoundatrendtowardgivingThaimanagersmoreautonomyandpowerindecisionmakingbyappointingthemtoimportantcommitteeswhileexpatriates’roleswerebecomingmainlysupervisory.AtTMT,HMT,IMCT,andBMW,expatriatesinkeycommittees,suchasthoserelatedtopromotions,salaryadministrations,anddiscipline,werereplacedbyThaimanagers.Companiesidentifiedseveralgeneralbenefitsofusingmorelocalmanagersandgivingthemgreaterautonomy.Themostimportantbenefitwasanincreaseinthestabilityofthemanagementforce,sincelocalemployeesstaylongerwithcompany,IJOEM3,2148whileexpatriatesmoveinandoutoftheirpositionseverythreetofouryears.Theaccumulatedknowledgehelpssubsidiariescreatealearningorganization.Companiesspecificallyreportedthattheyhavebenefitedfromlocalknowledgebroughtbylocalmanagers.Inaddition,deployinglocalmanagersclosestheculturalgapthatexistsbetweenexpatriatemanagersandlocallineemployees,therebyprovidingbettercommunicationamongthevariouslevelswithinthecompanyandgreaterintegrationasaresultofbettermutualunderstanding.Somecompaniesreportedthatemployeeshavecommentedfavorablyonthedifferencebetweentheforeignmanagementstylepracticedinthepastandthemoreautonomousfunctioningthatreplacedit.TheinvolvementofThaisatalllevelsofdecisionmakinghasresultedinseveralspecificimprovementsinperformanceoroperations.First,companiesreportedanincreaseinemployees’abilitytoanalyzeandsolveproblems.Second,overallteamperformancehasimprovedasemployeesshareproblemsanddiscusssolutions.Third,lesstimeisrequiredtotackleproblems.Fourth,theemployee’scommitmentishigherastheyfeelempoweredtodesignplansfortheirteams.Fifth,subsidiariescanimplementstrategiesproactively–promptreactionandcontrolexercisedbylocalemployeeshelpstoreducetheuncertaintyandriskthatthecompanyfacesinaverycompetitivemarket.Sixth,byappointinglocalmanagerstokeydecisionbodies,companieswereabletoeliminateunfairnessinpromotion,whichwasaproblemwhenthesecommitteeswerecomprisedofexpatriatemanagersonly.Finally,byreplacingexpatriateswithlocalmanagers,thecompaniesbenefitedfromcostreduction,asexpatriatemanagers’salariesarefivetimeshigherthanthoseoflocalmanagers.
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