Chapter 4 Methods of ComputerBased InstructionWord格式.docx
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Chapter 4 Methods of ComputerBased InstructionWord格式.docx
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Thevariouseducationalusesofcomputersincludedadministrativeuses,teachingaboutcomputers,andteachingwithcomputers.Concerningthelastarea,anumberofapplicationswillberelated:
learningproblem-solvingskillsthroughprogramming,studyingmathandbusinessskillsusingspreadsheetsandotherbusinessprograms,andwrithingwiththeuseofwordprocessors.Themajorinstructionaluseofcomputers,however,iswithcomputerprogramsintendedtoteachspecifictopicssuchmath,science,language,orreading.Inthischapter,wewilldevotetothislastuse.
Instructionalcomputerprogramsarereferredtobyavarietyofnames.Someoftheseare:
CAI–Computer-assistedinstruction
CBE–Computer-basededucation
CAL–Computer-assistedlearning
IAC–Instructionalapplicationofcomputers
CBI–Computer-basedinstruction
Weusethetermcomputer-basedinstruction(CBI)becauseouremphasisisoninstructionratherthaneducationingeneral.Thispartpresentsamodelofinstructionandrelatesittothedifferenttypesofmethodologiestobediscussedinthefollowingpartsinthischapter.
Forinstructiontobeeffectiveitisnecessarythatthefollowingfourphasesbepresent:
Presentinginformation
Guidingthestudent
Practicing
Assessingstudentlearning
1.1PresentingInformation
Thefirstthreephasesarebaseduponresearchonclassroominstruction(Rosenshing,1983;
Rosenshine&
Stevens,inpress).Toteachsomethingnew,theinstructormustfirstpresentinformation.Thismaytakeanumberofforms.Forverbalorpictorialinformation,aninstructormaypresentrulesandprinciples,showpictures,orprovideothernonverbalinformation.Toteachsuchskillsasoperatinga35-mmcameraordoinglongdivision,theinstructorwillprobablymodeltheskillstobelearned.Thatis,theinstructorwillperformtheskillssothatstudentscanimitatethem.
Animportantpartofpresentinginformationisthroughexample.Thus,inadditiontostatingthephysicalrule“forceequalsmasstimesacceleration,”theinstructorshoulddemonstrateapplicationsofthatphysicalrule,suchasatruckacceleratingmorequicklywhenitisempty.Theskilloflongdivisionwouldbemodelledusingavarietyofnumbersinthedividendandthedivisor.Moststudentswillrequiremorethanoneexamplebeforetheyareabletoapplytheruleorskill.
Notallmodelsofteachingbeingwiththepresentationofinformation,however.Somemodelsarebasedontheassumptionthatstudentsshoulddiscoverprinciplesordevelopskillsthroughexperimentationandpractice.Althoughsuchmodelshavevalueforsomestudents,weregardonethatbeginswiththepresentationofinformationasmoreefficientanddemonstrablymoresuccessful(Koran,1971;
Merrill,1974;
Klausmeier&
Feldman,1975).
1.2GuidingtheStudent
Thefirstphase,presentinginformation,isinstructorcentred.Thatis,theinstructordoessomethingandthestudentobserves.Thesecondphase,guidingthestudent,isveryinteractive.Havingobservedthepresentation,thestudentmustnowdosomething,withguidancefromtheinstructor.Again,thismeansdifferentthingsdependingonthenatureofthematerial.Thestudentmayanswerquestionsaboutfactualinformation,mayapplyrulesandprinciplesinproblem-solvingactivities,orpracticeproceduralskills.Ineachcase,theinstructorobservesthestudentandcorrectsanyerrors.Ifthestudentdistortsfactualinformation,theinstructorshouldremindthestudentofthecorrectinformation,perhapsbyrepeatingit.Whenthestudentperformsaskillincorrectly,theinstructormaymodeltheprocedureorpartofitagain.
Intheclassroom,guidanceoftentakestheformoftheinstructoraskingquestionsthatstudentsmustanswer,Whenaquestionisansweredincorrectly,theinstructormayeithertellthestudentthecorrectanswerormayaskleadingquestionstohelpthestudentrecallthecorrectinformation.
Whenthestudentlearnsfromabook,questionsorsuggestedactivitiesaresometimesincludedasguidance.However,unliketheclassroom,ifthestudentdoesnotperformcorrectly,trueguidancedoesnotoccur.Thestudentmayreceivehelponlyatsomelatertime,whentheinstructorlooksatwhatthestudenthasdoneandprovidesfeedback.
Guidanceisimportantininstructionbecausenostudentlearnsallthatistaughtonasingleexposure.Studentswillmakeerrorsandfrequentlybeunawarethattheyhavemadethem.Itisnecessarythatthestudentsbemadeawareoftheseandcorrectthem.Theinteractiveprocessofthestudentattemptingtoapplynewknowledge,theinstructorcorrectingandguiding,andthestudentmakingfurtherattemptsisfrequentlyomittedininstructionandyetisprobablythemostimportantcomponent.
1.3Practice
Theinstructionalprocessisnotcompletewhenthestudentcandosomethingonce.Thestudentmustusuallybeabletoperformquicklyorfluently,sometimesunderconditionsofdistraction,withfewornoerrors.Furthermore,weusuallywantthestudenttolearninformationpermanentlyratherthanforashortduration.Practicingaskillasingletimeoransweringasinglequestionwillnotguaranteeretention.Repeatedpracticeisrequiredforastudenttoretaininformationandtobecomefluentwithit.
Thethirdphase,practice,isstudentcentred.Althoughtheinstructorobservesthestudentandmakescorrectionswhenerrorsareobserved,theemphasisisonthestudentpracticingandtheinstructormakingonlyshortcorrectivestatements.
Fluencyandspeedarerelatedbutslightlydifferentaspectsofwell-learnedinformation.Tobefluentinaskillnotonlymeansdoingitquicklybutalsodoingitwithoutthinkingaboutit.TospeakFrenchfluently,forexample,itisnecessarythatthecorrectwordcomeautomatically,withoutthinking.Reading,writing,spelling,arithmetic,drivingacar,andcountlessotherskillsarealmostworthlessifnotperformedquicklyandfluently.
Ontheotherhand,someinformationdoesnotrequirespeedorfluency.Itdoesnotmatterwhetheronecanperformachemistryexperimentorwriteacriticalessayquickly,ormakedecisionsaboutstartingabusinessfluently.Itismoreimportantthatsuchthingsbedonecarefullyandcorrectly.However,thestudentshouldrememberhowtodothesethings.Practicenotonlyenhancesspeedandfluencybutalsoretention.
Manyexamplesofpracticeinclassroominstructionexist.Inelementarymathandreading,theinstructorfrequentlyasksstudentsquestionsorrequiresthemtoreadpassagesfromprimers.However,workbooksarethemostcommonmethodofpracticing.Workbooksallowallstudentstopracticesimultaneouslyratherthanhavingmoststudentslistenwhileonestudentatatimepractices.However,whenastudentmakesanerrorpracticingwithaworkbook,theerrormightneverbecorrected.
Inforeign-languageinstruction,acommontypeofpracticeistheflash-carddrill.Thestudentproducesapileofcards,forexample,withFrenchwordsononesideandtheequivalentEnglishwordsonthereverse.Thestudentthengoesthroughthedeckofcards,tryingtotranslatethewordscorrectly,andreceivesimmediatecorrectivefeedbackbylookingattheothersideofthecard.
1.4AssessingStudentLearning
Thefirstthreephasesjustdiscussedarewhatmostpeopleconsidertobeinstruction.However,weshouldnotassumethatinstructionwillbesuccessfulforallstudents.Rather,studentlearningshouldbeassessedusuallythroughtheuseoftests,whichareanimportantpartoftheinstructionalprocess.Testsprovideinformationabouttheleveloflearning,thequalityofteaching,andfutureinstructionalneeds.Instructorsandstudentsalikeplaceundueemphasisontestsasameansofassigninggrades.Ouremphasisisontestsasameansofguidinginstruction,todeterminewhatinstructionisneededforwhichstudents.
Accordingtothemodelwehavedescribed,theinstructionalprocessincludestheinstructorpresentinginformationtostudents,theinstructorguidingthestudents’firstinteractionwiththematerial,thestudentpracticingthematerialtoenhancefluencyandretention,andtheinstructortestingstudentstodeterminewhattheyshoulddonext.
Thismodel,whichwehaverelatedprimarilytoclassroominstruction,canalsobeappliedtocomputer-basedinstruction.Thatisnottosaythatthecomputermustalwaysfulfilallthephasesofinstruction.Computersarebutoneelementoftheinstructionalenvironment,alongwithteachersandothermedia.Thus,thecomputermayserveanycombinationofthefourphases.Itmaypresentinitialinformation,afterwhichthestudentreceivesguidancefromaninstructorandpracticesusingaworkbook.Thestudentmaylearninitialinformationfromalecture,afterwhichthecomputerisusedforthefirstthreephases,withtestingbeingdoneinthetraditionalwaybytheinstructor.Inallcases,thefourpartsofinstructionshouldbepresent,althoughtheymaybeembodiedinanycombinationofdifferentmedia.
Whenthecomputerisresponsiblefortotalinstruction,itisimportantthatallfourphasesbeincluded.Itisnotatypicalforcomputerprogramsintendedforpractice(drills)tobeexpectedtocarrytheloadoftotalinstruction.Whenthisisdone,studentsmayfailtolearnwhatisdesired.
Thenextsectionsdealwithfivemajortypesofcomputer-basedinstructionprogram.Theyaretutorials,drills,simulations,games,andtests.
2.Tutorials
Tutoriallessonaimtosatisfythefirsttwocomponentsofinstruction,andtheyusuallydonotengageinextendedpracticeorassessmentoflearning.Sometutorialsdonotev
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