外文资料翻译全球工业的商品产业链分析Word格式.docx
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外文资料翻译全球工业的商品产业链分析Word格式.docx
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and"
buyer-driven"
globalcommoditychains,whichisunderthedevelopmentofindustrialandcommercialcapital.Andthenanalyzetheirfeaturesandtherelationshipwithdevelopmentstrategies.
Keywords:
Globalization;
CommodityChains;
developmentstrategies
Background
Inglobalcapitalism,economicactivityisnotonlyinternationalinscope,itisalsoglobalinorganization."
Internationalization"
referstothegeographicspreadofeconomicactivitiesacrossnationalboundaries.Assuch,itisnotanewphenomenon.Indeed,ithasbeenaprominentfeatureoftheworldeconomysinceatleasttheseventeenthcenturywhencolonialempiresbegantocarveuptheglobeinsearchofrawmaterialsandnewmarketsfortheirmanufacturedexports."
Globalization"
ismuchmorerecentthaninternationalizationbecauseitimpliesfunctionalintegrationbetweeninternationallydispersedactivities(Dicken,1998:
5).
Typesofglobalization
Industrialandcommercialcapitalhavepromotedglobalizationbyestablishingtwodistincttypesofinternationaleconomicnetworks,whichcanbecalled"
globalcommoditychains,respectively(Gereffi,1994;
1999).Acommoditychainreferstothewholerangeofactivitiesinvolvedinthedesign,production,andmarketingofaproduct(seeGereffiandKorzeniewicz,1994foranoverviewofthisframework).Producer-drivencommoditychainsarethoseinwhichlarge,usuallytransnational,manufacturersplaythecentralrolesincoordinatingproductionnetworks(includingtheirbackwardandforwardlinkages).Thisischaracteristicofcapital-andtechnology-intensiveindustriessuchasautomobiles,aircraft,computers,semiconductors,andheavymachinery.Theautomobileindustryoffersaclassicillustrationofaproducer-drivenchain,withmultilayeredproductionsystemsthatinvolvethousandsoffirms(includingparents,subsidiaries,andsubcontractors).Inthe1980s,theaverageJapaneseautomaker'
sproductionsystem,forexample,contained170first-tier,4,700second-tier,and31,600third-tiersubcontractors(Hill1989:
466).FloridaandKenney(1991)foundthatJapaneseautomobilemanufacturersactuallyreconstitutedmanyaspectsoftheirhome-countrysuppliernetworksinNorthAmerica.Doner(1991)extendedthisframeworktohighlightthecomplexforcesthatdriveJapaneseautomakerstocreateregionalproductionschemesforthesupplyofautopartsinahalf-dozennationsinEastandSoutheastAsia.Henderson(1989)andBorrus(1997)alsosupportthenotionthatproducer-drivencommoditychainshaveestablishedanEastAsiandivisionoflaborintheirstudiesoftheinternationalizationoftheU.S.andJapanesesemiconductorindustries.
Buyer-drivencommoditychainsrefertothoseindustriesinwhichlargeretailers,marketers,andbrandedmanufacturersplaythepivotalrolesinsettingupdecentralizedproductionnetworksinavarietyofexportingcountries,typicallylocatedinthethirdworld.Thispatternoftrade-ledindustrializationhasbecomecommoninlabor-intensive,consumergoodsindustriessuchasgarments,footwear,toys,housewares,consumerelectronics,andavarietyofhandicrafts.Productionisgenerallycarriedoutbytierednetworksofthirdworldcontractorsthatmakefinishedgoodsforforeignbuyers.Thespecificationsaresuppliedbythelargeretailersormarketersthatorderthegoods.
Features
Oneofthemaincharacteristicsofthefirmsthatfitthebuyer-drivenmodel,includingretailerslikeWal-Mart,SearsRoebuck,andJ.C.Penney,athleticfootwearcompanieslikeNikeandReebok,andfashion-orientedapparelcompanieslikeLizClaiborneandTheLimited,isthatthesecompaniesdesignand/ormarket—butdonotmake—thebrandedproductstheyorder.Theyarepartofanewbreedof"
manufacturerswithoutfactories"
thatseparatethephysicalproductionofgoodsfromthedesignandmarketingstagesoftheproductionprocess.Profitsinbuyer-drivenchainsderivenotfromscale,volume,andtechnologicaladvancesasinproducer-drivenchains,butratherfromuniquecombinationsofhigh-valueresearch,design,sales,marketing,andfinancialservicesthatallowtheretailers,designers,andmarketerstoactasstrategicbrokersinlinkingoverseasfactoriesandtraderswithevolvingproductnichesintheirmainconsumermarkets(Gereffi,1994).
Profitabilityisgreatestintherelativelyconcentratedsegmentsofglobalcommoditychainscharacterizedbyhighbarrierstotheentryofnewfirms.Inproducer-drivenchains,manufacturersmakingadvancedproductslikeaircraft,automobiles,andcomputersarethekeyeconomicagentsnotonlyintermsoftheirearnings,butalsointheirabilitytoexertcontroloverbackwardlinkageswithrawmaterialandcomponentsuppliers,andforwardlinkagesintodistributionandretailing.Theleadfirmsinproducer-drivenchainsusuallybelongtoglobaloligopolies.Buyer-drivencommoditychains,bycontrast,arecharacterizedbyhighlycompetitiveandgloballydecentralizedfactorysystems.Thecompaniesthatdevelopandsellbrand-namedproductsexertsubstantialcontroloverhow,when,andwheremanufacturingwilltakeplace,andhowmuchprofitaccruesateachstageofthechain.Thus,whereasproducer-drivencommoditychainsarecontrolledbylargemanufacturersatthepointofproduction,themainleverageinbuyer-drivenindustriesisexercisedbyretailersandmarketersatthedistributionandretailendofthechain.
Themainfeaturesofproducer-drivenandbuyer-drivencommoditychainsarehighlightedinTable1.Producer-drivenandbuyer-drivenchainsarerootedindistinctindustrialsectors,theyareledbydifferenttypesoftransnationalcapital(industrialandcommercial,respectively),andtheyvaryintheircorecompetencies(atthefirmlevel)andtheirentrybarriers(atthesectorallevel).Thefinishedgoodsinproducer-drivenchainstendtobesuppliedbycorecountrytransnationals,whilethegoodsinbuyer-drivenchainsaregenerallymadebylocallyownedfirmsindevelopingcountries.Whereastransnationalcorporationsestablishinvestment-basedverticalnetworks,theretailers,designers,andtradingcompaniesinbuyer-drivenchainssetupandcoordinatetrade-basedhorizontalnetworks.
MainCharacteristicsofProducer-DrivenandBuyer-Driven
GlobalCommodityChains
Producter-DrivenCommodityChain
Buyer-DrivenCommodityChain
DriversofGlobalcommodity
IndustrialCapital
CommercialCapital
CoreCompetencies
Research&
Development;
Production
Design;
Marketing
BarriierstoEntry
EconomiesofScale
EconomiesofScope
EconomicsSectors
ConsumerDurables;
IntermediateGoods;
CapitalGoods
ConsumerNondurables
TypicalIndustries
Automobiles;
Computers;
Aircraft
Apparel;
Footwear;
Toys
OwnshipofManufacturingFirms
TransnationalFirms
LocalFirms,predominantlyindevelopingcountries
MainNetworkLinks
Investment-based
Trade-based
PredominantNetworkStucture
Vertical
Horizontal
Commoditychainsanddevelopmentstrategies
Thereisanaffinitybetweencommoditychainsanddevelopmentstrategies.Theimport-substitutingindustrialization(ISI)developmentstrategy,whichprevailedinLatinAmericafornearlyfivedecadesuntilthe1970s,wasbasedonproducer-drivencommoditychains.Transnationalcorporations,whichhaveactivelytappedLatinAmerica'
soil,mineral,andagriculturalresourcessincethenineteenthcentury,wereinvitedtoestablishmoreadvancedmanufacturingindustriesintheregion,beginningwithautomobileassemblyplantsinlargecountrieslikeMexico,Brazil,andArgentinainthe1920s.Bythe1950sand1960s,arangeofadvancedISIfactorieswerespreadthroughouttheregionindiverseindustriessuchaspetrochemicals,pharmaceuticals,automobiles,electricalandnon-electricalmachinery,andcomputers(GereffiandWyman,1990).Outputwasmainlydestinedforthedomesticmarket,althoughinthe1970smoreattentionwasgiventomanufacturedexportstooffsetthecostlyimportbillsassociatedwithISIdeepening.Buyer-drivencommoditychains,bycontrast,havebeenvirtuallyignoredinLatinAmericasincethetransnationalfirmsthatestablishedISIwereprimarilyinterestedinLatinAmerica'
sdomesticmarkets,notexports.ThisallowedthelocalexportersintheEastAsianNIEsthatpursuedexport-orientedindustrialization(EOI)togainthelion'
sshareofU.S.andEuropeanmarketsfortheprofitableconsumergoodsthatareonlysuppliedviabuyer-drivenchains.
Bothbuyer-drivenandproducer-drivencommoditychainsareusefulinanalyzingandevaluatingglobalindustries.Aswithtraditionalsupply-chainperspectives,thecommoditychainsframeworkisbasedontheflowofgoodsinvolvedintheproductionanddistributionofapparelproducts.However,theglobalcommoditychainsapproachdiffersinatleastfourrespectsfromrelatedconcepts,suchasthe"
pipeline"
(AAMA,1984)or"
valuechain"
(Porter1990)approaches.Theglobalcommoditychainframework:
1)incorporatesanexplicitinternationaldimensionintotheanalysis;
2)focusesonthepowerexercisedbytheleadfirmsindifferentsegmentsofthecommoditychain,anditillustrateshowpowershiftsovertime;
3)viewsthecoordinationoftheentirechainasakeysourceofcompetitiveadvantagethatrequiresusingnetworksasastrategicasset;
and
4)looksatorganizationallearningasoneofthecriticalmechanismsbywhichfirmstrytoimproveorconsolidatetheirpositionswithinthechain.
Oneofthemajorhypothesesoftheglobalcommoditychainsapproachisthatdevelopm
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