可持续性和城市扩展的新陈代谢模型外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译文档格式.docx
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可持续性和城市扩展的新陈代谢模型外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译文档格式.docx
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Abstract:
Theuseofthemetabolismconcept,expandedtoincludeaspectsoflivability,isappliedtocitiestodemonstratethepracticalmeaningofsustainability.Itsapplicationinindustrialecology,urbanecology,urbandemonstrationprojects,businessplansandcitycomparisonsareusedtoillustrateitspotential.
Keywords:
Sustainability;
CitiesMetabolism;
Livability;
Ecosystem;
Indicators
1、Introduction
SustainabilityhasbeendefinedthroughtheUnitedNationsasaglobalprocessofdevelopmentthatminimisesenvironmentsresourcesandreducestheimpactonenvironmentalsinksusingprocessesthatsimultaneouslyimprovetheeconomyandthequalityoflife(UNWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,1987).ThispapertriestoshowhowasimplemodeldevelopedfortheAustralianStateoftheEnvironmentreportingprocess(Newmanetal.,1996)canbeusedtogivesomesubstancetotheapplicationofsustainabilitytocities.DatafromtheAustralianapplicationsandsomeothercasestudiesareprovidedtoillustratehowthemodelworks.
2、Applicationofsustainabilitytocities
TheprinciplesofsustainabilitycanbeappliedtocitiesthoughtheguidanceonhowthiscanbedonewasnotveryclearinAgenda21orotherUnitedNationsdocuments(Keating,1993).Itisprobablytruetosaythatthemajorenvironmentalbattlesofthepastwerefoughtoutsidecitiesbutthatawarenessoftheneedtoincludecitiesintheglobalsustainabilityagenda,isnowuniversallyrecognisedbyenvironmentalists,governmentsandindustry.TheOrganisationforEconomicandCulturalDevelopment,theEuropeanCommunityandeventheWorldBanknowhavesustainablecitiesprograms.In1994theGlobalForumonCitiesandSustainableDevelopmentheardfrom50cities(MitlinandSatterthwaite,1994)andin1996theUNheldHabitatII,theSecondUnitedNationsConferenceonHumanSettlementsinIstanbul.Atthe`CitySummit'
thenationsoftheworldreportedonprogressinachievingsustainabilityintheircities(UNCentreforHumanSettlements,1996).
Anders(1991),inaglobalreviewofthesustainablecitiesmovement,pointedout:
``Thesustainablecitiesmovementseemsunitedinitsperceptionthatthestateoftheenvironmentdemandsactionandthatcitiesareanappropriateforuminwhichtoact'
'
.
OtherssuchasYanarellaandLevine(1992)suggestthatallsustainabilityinitiativesshouldbecentredaroundstrategiesfordesigning,redesigningandbuildingsustainablecities.Fromaglobalperspective,theysuggestthatcitiesshapetheworldandthatwewillneverbegintoimplementthesustainabilityprocessunlesswecanrelateittocities.
3、Anemergingframework-thecityasanecosystem
Throughoutthiscenturythecityhasbeenconceivedbysociologists,plannersandengineersas'
abazaar,aseatofpoliticalchaos,aninfernalmachine,acircuit,andmorehopefully,asacommunity,thehumancreationparexcellence'
(BrugmannandHersh(1991),citedinRoseland(1992)).
Oneofthestrongestthemesrunningthroughtheliteratureonurbansustainabilityisthatifwearetosolveourenvironmentalproblemsweneedtoviewthecityasanecosystem.AsTjallingii(1993)putsit:
Thecityis(now)conceivedasadynamicandcomplexecosystem.Thisisnotametaphor,butaconceptofarealcity.Thesocial,economicandculturalsystemscannotescapetherulesofabioticandbioticnature.Guidelinesforactionwillhavetobegearedtotheserules'
Likeallecosystems,thecityisasystem,havinginputsofenergyandmaterials.Themainenvironmentalproblems(andeconomiccosts)arerelatedtothegrowthoftheseinputsandmanagingtheincreasedoutputs.Bylookingatthecityasawholeandbyanalysingthepathwaysalongwhichenergyandmaterialsincludingpollutantsmove,itispossibletobegintoconceiveofmanagementsystemsandtechnologieswhichallowforthereintegrationofnaturalprocesses,increasingtheefficiencyofresourceuse,therecyclingofwastesasvaluablematerialsandtheconservationof(andevenproductionof)energy.
Theremaybeon-goingacademicdebateaboutwhatconstitutessustainabilityoranecosystemapproach(Slocombe,1993),butwhatisclearisthatmanystrategiesandprogramsaroundtheworldhavebeguntoapplysuchnotionsbothfornewdevelopmentandredevelopmentofexistingareas.
4、Theextendedmetabolismmodel
Howdoesacitydefineitsgoalsinawaythatenablesittobemoresustainable?
Howdoyoumakeasystematicapproachthatbeginstofulfiltheglobalandlocalsustainabilityagenda?
TheapproachadoptedhereisbasedontheexperienceoftheHumanSettlementsPanelintheAustralianStateoftheEnvironmentReportingprocess(seeNewmanetal.,1996)andontheexperienceofmakingaSustainabilityPlanforPhiladelphiawiththegraduatestudentsattheUniversityofPennsylvaniain1995and1997,aswellasawarenessoftheWorldBank/UNHabitatprojectondevelopingsustainabilityindicatorsforcities(WorldBank,1994).
Itispossibletodefinethegoalofsustainabilityinacityasthereductionofthecity'
suseofnaturalresourcesandproductionofwasteswhilesimultaneouslyimprovingitslivability,sothatitcanbetterfitwithinthecapacitiesofthelocal,regionalandglobalecosystems.
Metabolismisabiologicalsystemswayoflookingattheresourceinputsandwasteoutputsofsettlements.Thisapproachhasbeendevelopedbyafewacademicsoverthepast30years,thoughithasrarelyifeverbeenusedinpolicydevelopmentforcityplanning(Wolman,1965;
Boydenetal.,1981;
Girardet,1992).Fig.1setsouthowthisbasicmetabolismconcepthasbeenextendedtoincludethedynamicsofsettlementsandlivabilityinthesesettlements.ItwasdevelopedasthebasisoftheapproachadoptedbytheAustralianStateoftheEnvironmentReport(Newmanetal,1996).
Inthismodelitispossibletospecifythephysicalandbiologicalbasisofthecity,aswellasitshumanbasis.Thephysicalandbiologicalprocessesofconvertingresourcesintousefulproductsandwastesislikethehumanbody'
smetabolicprocessesorthatofanecosystem.Theyarebasedonthelawsofthermodynamicswhichshowthatanythingwhichcomesintoabiologicalsystemmustpassthroughandthattheamountofwasteisthereforedependentontheamountofresourcesrequired.Abalancesheetofinputsandoutputscanbecreated.Italsomeansthatwecanmanagethewastesproduced,buttheyrequireenergyinordertoturnthemintoanythingusefulandultimatelyallmaterialswilleventuallyendupaswaste.Forexample,allcarbonproductswilleventuallyendupasCO2andthisisnotpossibletorecycleanyfurtherwithoutenormousenergyinputsthatinthemselveshaveassociatedwastes.Thisistheentropyfactorinmetabolism.
Whatthismeans,isthatthebestwaytoensurethattherearereductionsinimpact,istoreducetheresourceinputs.Thisapproachtoresourcemanagementisimplicitlyunderstoodbyscientistsbutisnotinherenttoaneconomist'
sapproachwhichseesonly`opencycles'
wheneverhumaningenuityandtechnologyareappliedtonaturalresources.However,acityisaphysicalandbiologicalsystem.TheyapplythemetabolismconcepttoSydney.
ThemetabolicflowsforSydneyin1970and1990aresummarised;
theyshowthatapartfromafewairqualityparameterstherehasbeenanincreaseinpercapitaresourceinputsandwasteoutputs.Thereductioninhydrocarbonsisbecausetheyaremorecompletelyburntinmodernautomobileenginesbutthisjustmeansthatthere'
smoreCO2produced.IfCO2istobereduced,thereneedstobemorefundamentalchange,suchasreducingtheneedtotravelsomuch(NewmanandKenworthy,1999).
Themetabolismapproachtocitiesisapurelybiologicalview,butcitiesaremuchmorethanamechanismforprocessingresourcesandproducingwastes,theyareaboutcreatinghumanopportunity.Ttshowshowthisbasicmetabolismconcepthasbeenextendedtoincludelivabilityinthesesettlementssothattheeconomicandsocialaspectsofsustainabilityareintegratedwiththeenvironmental.Thisapproachnowbecomesmoreofahumanecosystemapproach,assuggestedbyTjallingiiandothersabove.
Sometypicalsustainabilityindicatorsforcitiescoveringmetabolicflowsandlivabilityareoutlined.Livabilityisaboutthehumanrequirementforsocialamenity,healthandwellbeingandincludesbothindividualandcommunitywell-being.Livabilityisaboutthehumanenvironmentthoughitcanneverbeseparatedfromthenaturalenvironment.Sustainabilityforacityisthusnotonlythereductioninmetabolicflows(resourceinputsandwasteoutputs),itmustalsobeaboutincreasinghumanlivability(socialamenityandhealth).
LivabilityindicatorswereproducedforSydneyandotherAustraliansettlementsfortheStateoftheEnvironmentReport(Newmanetal.,1996),butonlyfor1year.Furtherstudiescanthusdetermineiftheseaspectsofsustainabilityareimprovingornot.
5、Applicationoftheextendedmetabolismmodel
Theextendedmetabolismmodelcanbeappliedatarangeoflevelsandtoarangeofdifferenthumanactivities,forexample:
1.Industrialareascanexaminetheirinputsofresourcesandoutputsofwastewhilemeasuringtheirusualeconomicparametersandothermatterssuchasworkerhealthandsafety.Thesedatacouldthenbeusedtoseehowmutuallyusefulsolutionscouldbefoundsuchastherecyclingofoneindustry'
swasteasanimportantresourcesubstituteforanadjacentindustry.TheKalundborgareaofDenmarkhasmadeanassessmentofthiskind(Tibbs,1992).AyresandSimonis(1994)haveado
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- 关 键 词:
- 持续性 城市 扩展 新陈代谢 模型 外文 文献 翻译 中英文