新语言学笔记Word格式.docx
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新语言学笔记Word格式.docx
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thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)
Phonology:
isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)
Morphology:
thestudyofforms,thatisthestudyofinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesgoverntheformationofword(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)
Syntax:
thestudyofhowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesgoverntheformationofsentences
Semantics:
thestudyofmeaninginabstraction
Pragmatics:
thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse
Stylistics:
thestudyofstyle,thestudyoftheuseoflanguageinliteraryandnon-literarytexts,withliterarytextsasitsprimaryconcern
Macrolingustics:
studyoflanguageinaninterdisciplinaryandappliedoriation
Sociolinguistics:
thestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety
Psycholinguistics:
thestudyoflanguageinrelationtotheworkingsofthemind
Appliedlinguistics:
theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning
Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive
Prescribehowthingsoughttobe\
Describehowthingare
②Synchronicvs.Diachronic
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;
Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.
③Speechandwriting
Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten
④Langueandparole
ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)
Langue:
referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity
Parole:
referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse
⑤Competenceandperformance
ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)
Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage
Performance:
theactualrealizationoftheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageinlinguisticcommunication
Chapter2Phoneticsandphonology
Speechsound:
soundusedbyallhumanlanguagestorepresentmeaning
[A]phonetics
Phonetictranscriptions:
thevisualsystemofsymbolsforthesoundoccurringinspokencommunication
Broadtranscription:
thetranscriptionofonlythemorenoticeablephoneticfeaturesofanutterance
Narrowtranscription:
thetranscriptionmoredetaiedwithdiacritics发音符号
E.g.:
ClassificationofEnglishconsonants
Consonant:
soundsproducedbyobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity
Intermsofmannerofarticulation(howtheairstreamismodified)
①Stops:
theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]
②Fricatives:
theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth
[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[]/[],[]/[]
③Affricates:
theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[]/[]
④Liquids:
theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth[l][r]
⑤Glides:
[w],[j],[h]
⑥Nasals:
thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],[n],[]
Byplaceofarticulation(wheretheairstreamismodified)
①bilabials:
upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/[b],[w][]
②labiodentals:
thelowerlipandtheupperteeth
[f]/[v]
③interdentals:
thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[]/[]
④alveolars:
thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]
⑤palatal:
tongueinthemiddleofthepalate
[j],[]/[],[]/[]
⑥velars:
thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum
[k],[g],[]
⑦glottals:
theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h]
ClassificationofEnglishvowels
Vowel:
soundproducedwithnoobstructionoftheairstream,andtheyareallvoiced
①Thehighestpositionofthetongue:
front,central,back;
②Theopennessofthemouth:
close,semi-close,semi-open,open;
③Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):
Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowels
Allthebackvowels,except[]areroundedvowels
④Thelengthofthesound:
longvowels&
shortvowels
[B]phonology
Phone,phoneme,andallophone
Phone:
theactualrealizationoftheabstractunit–phoneme
Phoneme:
thesmallestsegmentofsoundwhichcandistinguishtwowords
Allophone:
asetofphones,differentversionsofonephoneme
[complementarydistribution,andminimalpair
Complementarydistribution:
twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution,theycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.
e.g.
Minimalpair:
whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplace,thetwosoundsaresaidaminimalpair.
Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.
Somerulesinphonology
Co-articulationeffects:
theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenext.ItincludesAssimilation&
Elision
Assimilation:
twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheother
E.g.
Elision:
theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolation
E.g.
Suprasegmentalfeatures
Phonotactics:
abranchofphonologythatdealswithrestrictionsinalanguageonthepermissiblecombinationsofphoneme
Syllable:
aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlargerthanonesoundandsmallerthanaword
Prosodicfeatures:
thephonologicalvariationsmainlyinstress,tone,andintonation,thatis,relativeloudnessofsyllables,changesinthepitchofaspeaker'
svoiceandthechoiceofthepitchlevel,etc.
①Stress:
loudnessofsyllables
②Tone:
pitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.
③Intonation:
Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.
Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone
Chapter3Morphology
[A]Typesofwords
Contentwords(lexicalwords):
wordswhichrefertothings,qualities,states,oractions,etc.[nouns,verbs,adj,adv]
Functionwords(form,grammatical,structurewords):
wordsusedtoempressgrammaticalrelationships[conj.prep.auxiliaries.articles.]
Paguewords:
wordsthatareformedbyonlyonemorphemeandcan'
tbesegmentedintoparts
Transparentwords:
wordsthatareformedbymorethanonemorphemeandcanbesegmentedintoparts
[B]Classificationofmorphemes
Freemorphemes&
boundmorphemes
Freemorphemes:
canstandbythemselvesasanindependentwords
Boundmorphemes:
cannotstandonitsown,buttypicallyattachedtoanotherform
Deriviational&
inflectional
Affix---boundmorphemethatisusedonlywhenaddedtoanotherwordormorpheme
Derivationalmorpheme:
affixusedtoformanewword(Derivationalmorphemesformnewword,maychangethegrammaticalclass)
Inflectionalmorpheme:
affixthatindicatesaspectsofthegrammaticalfunctionofaword(Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalclassofaword,doesn'
tformanewword)
8types-----Noun+-’s,-s[possessive;
plural]
Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular;
presentparticiple;
pasttense,pastparticiple]
Adj+-er,-est[comparative;
superlative]
Deriviationalmorphology:
concernedwithhowawordisformedandthewordformationprocess
Inflectionalmorphology:
concernedwithhowtheformofawordmaybeaffectedwhenitisusedwithotherwordsorinasentence
[C]Morphemes,Morphsandallomorphs
Morpheme:
thesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitthatcan'
tbefurthersegmented(Aminimalunitofmeaning)
Morphs:
theactualrealizationofabstractmorphemes
Allomorphs:
asetofmorphs,differentversionsofonemorpheme
[D]Word-formationprocess
Wordformation:
anareaofderiviationalmorphologywhichstudiedtheprocessofwordbuildingandtherulesgoverningtheformationofnewwords
①Neologism(coinage)theinventionoftotallynewterms
②Borrowingthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguages
③Derivation(affixation)thenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixes
④Compounding
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