Cohesion in English.docx
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Cohesion in English.docx
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CohesioninEnglish
CohesioninEnglish
ThevariouskindsofcohesionhadbeenoutlinedbyMAKHallidayinhiswritingsonstylisticsandtheconceptwasdevelopedbyRuqayiaHasaninherUniversityofEdinburghdoctoralthesis.
Cohesiverelationsarerelationsbetweentwoormoreelementsinatextthatareindependentofthestructure:
forexamplebetweenapersonalpronounandanantecedentpropername,suchasJohn….he.Asemanticrelationofthiskindmaybesetupeitherwithinasentencewiththeconsequencethatwhenitcrossesasentenceboundaryithastheeffectofmakingthetwosentencescoherewithoneanother.
Themajorfunctionofcohesionistextformation.Asdefined:
textisaunifiedwholeoflinguisticitems,thisunityoftextasasemanticwholeissourcefortheconceptofcohesion.
Sofirstwewillexploretheconceptoftext.
Text
Textinlinguisticsreferstoanypassagespokenwrittenofwhateverlengththatformsaunifiedwhole.Areadercaneasilyidentifywhetherthepassageheisreadingisatextorotherwiseacollectionofunrelatedsentences.Atextmaybe:
spoken,written,prose,verse,dialogue,monologue,singleproverb,asinglecryforhelporalldaydiscussiononacommittee.Atextisaunitoflanguageinuse.Agrammaticalunitthatislargerthanasentence.Atextisnotsomethingthatislikeasentenceonlybiggerorlarger.Itismisleading.Rathertextcanbebestdefinedasasemanticunit;aunitnotofformbutofmeaning.Ifitissemanticunit,wewillnotexpecttofinditinstructureofasentenceasagrammaticalunitasphrase,clauseetc.
Sotextisnotconsistofsentencebutitisrealizedbysentenceorencodedinsentences.
Therearecertainobjectivefactorsinvolvedthatconstituteatext.
ConstituentsofText
1.Texture:
2.Ties:
3.Cohesion
1.Texture:
Textureisthatfeatureoftextwhichmadeitaunifiedwhole.
Accordingto‘TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofLinguisticsbyP.H.Mathews’cohesionandcoherencearesourceswhichcreatetexture.Crystaladds‘informativeness’tocohesionandcoherence.
Example:
Washandcoresixcookingapples.Putthemintoafireproofdish.
Herethemreferencebacktosixcookingapplestocreatecohesionbetweenthetwosentences.Herewemakeapresuppositionabouttherelationshipbetweenthemandsixcookingapplesbutitisnotenoughonlytomakeapresuppositionratherthatpresuppositionmustbesatisfiedtocreatetextureasshownintheexample.Thesetwoitemsarecoreferentialandthiscoreferentialitycreatestexture.
Herearefivecohesivedevicestocreatetexture:
(i)Reference
(ii)Substitution
(iii)Ellipses
(iv)Conjunction
(v)LexicalCohesion
2.Ties
Thetermreferstoasingleinstanceofcohesion.
Example:
Washandcoresixcookingapples.Putthemintoafireproofdish.
Themandsixcookingapplesshowreferenceastie.
IfwetaketheExample:
Washandcoresixcookingapples.Puttheapplesintoafireproofdish.
Herearetwoties
(i)Reference
(ii)Repetition
Cohesiveanalysisoftextismadeintermsoftieforasystematicaccountofitspatternswhichareasourcefortexture.Onwardwewillusetheterm‘cohesivetie’inplaceof‘tie’.
Herearefivedifferentkindsofcohesivetiesthatarealsocalledcohesivedevices:
(i)Reference
(ii)Substitution
(iii)Ellipses
(iv)Conjunction
(v)Lexicalcohesion
MAKHandRHhavebasedtheirmodelofcohesiononthesecohesiveties.Adetailedreviewisgivenhereintheproceedingdiscussion.
3.Cohesion
‘TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofLinguisticsbyP.H.Mathews(1997)’definescohesionintermofsyntacticunit(sentence).
‘ADictionaryOfLinguisticsAndPhoneticsbyDavidCrystal(1997)’definescohesionintermsofagrammaticalunit(words)
MAKHandRH(1976)arguedthattheconceptofcohesionissemanticone.Forthemitreferstorelationofmeaningthat:
existswithintext
givesthetexttexture
definesthetextastext
Thisrelationofmeaningbetweentheelementsgivesthereaderpresupposition.Thisisanotherwayofapproachingthenotionofcohesionthatpresupposingandthepresupposedgiveusapresuppositionatsemanticlevelasarelationofmeaning:
Theoneelementpresupposestheotheri.e.theoneelementcannotbedecodedwithoutthepresupposed.
Example:
Timeflies
Youcan’t;theyflytooquickly.
Youcan’t(Ellipses)
They(Reference)
Fly(LexicalCohesion)
TypesOFCohesion
Languageismultiplecodingsystemcomprisingthreelevelsofcoding:
ØMeaningThesemanticsystem
ØWordingThelexicogrammaticalsystem
(grammaranvocabulary)
ØSounding/writingThephonologicalandorthographicalsystem
Cohesiverelationfitintotheoverallpatternoflanguage.Cohesionisexpressedpartlythroughvocabularyandpartlythroughgrammar.
:
1.GrammaticalCohesion
(i)Reference
(ii)Substitution
(iii)Ellipses
2.LexicalCohesion
ThedistinctionbetweengrammaticalcohesionandLexicalcohesionisamatterofdegreeandMAHKRHsuggestednottogointhedepthoftheseoverlappingareasandthatconjunctionisontheborderlineofthetwotypesmainlyitisgrammaticalbutwiththelexicalcomponentsowecannotclearlydistinguishbetweenthetwotypes.
CohesionandtheLinguisticsStructure
TextureandStructure
Structureisonemeanofexpressingtexture.TextconsistsofonesentencearefairlyrarebuttheycanbesinglesentencesaswellforExample
Nosmoking
Wondernevercease
Butmostofthetextextendsbeyondtheconfinesofsinglesentencessostructureisimportantinatextasstructuralunitssuchasphrase,clauseandsentencewhichexpresstheunityoftext.ButouruseoftermCohesionrefersespeciallytothenonstructuraltextformingrelation.Theyaresemanticrelationsandthetextisasemanticunit.
CohesionWithintheText
Sincecohesiverelationisnotconcernedwithstructure,theymaybefoundjustaswellwithinthesentenceasbetweensentencescohesiverelationarebeyondthesentencesboundaries.Cohesionissemanticrelationbetweenoneelementinthetextandsomeotherelementthatiscrucialforitsinterpretation.Thisotherelementmustalsobefoundwithinthetext.Cohesionreferstotherangeofpossibilitiesthatexistforlinkingsomethingwithwhathasgonebefore.
ThePlaceofCohesionintheLinguisticsSystem
Halliday(1985)hasdescribedthreemajorfunctionalsemanticcomponents:
(i)TheIdeational
(ii)TheInterpersonal
(iii)TheTextual
Table:
theplaceofcohesioninthedescriptionofEnglishfunctionalcomponentsofsemanticsystem
Ideational
Interpersonal
Textual
Experiential
Logical
Structural
Non-structural
ByRank:
Clause:
Transitivity
VerbalGroup:
Tense
NominalGroup:
Epithesis
AdverbialGroup:
circmstance
AllRanks:
Practiceandhypotactic
relations
(condition,addition,
report)
ByRanks
Clause:
Mood,modality
VerbalGroup:
person
NominalGroup:
attitude
AdverbialGroup:
comment
ByRank
Clause:
theme
VerbalGroup:
voice
NominalGroup:
deixis
AdverbialGroup:
conjunction
Cross-Rank
Information
Unit:
Information
distribution,
Information
focus
Cohesion
Reference
Substitution
Ellipses
Conjunction
Lexicalcohesion
Conclusion
Cohesionisapartoftextformingcomponentinthelinguisticssystem.Itlinkstogethertheelementsthatarestructurallyunrelatedthroughthedependenceofoneontheotherforitsinterpretation.Withoutcohesionthesemanticsystemcannotbeeffectivelyactivatedatall.
CohesiveDevices
(i)Reference
(ii)Substitution
(iii)Ellipses
(iv)Conjunction
(v)Lexicalcohesion
1.Reference
Therearecertainitemsinanylanguagewhichcannotbeinterpretedsemanticallyintheirownrightrathertheymakereferencetosomethingelsewithinthetextfortheirinterpretation.
Hereisanexampleofreference
DoctorFosterwenttoGloucesterinashowerofrain
Hesteppedinpuddlerightuptohismiddle
Andneverwentthereagain
Hereintheaboveexample
HerefersbacktoDoctorFoster
ThererefersbacktoGloucester
Heandthereshowthatinformationaboutthemisretrievedelsewherewithinthetext.Itcharacterizesaparticulartypeofcohesionwhichiscalledreference.Therelationshipofreferenceisonsemanticlevel.Thereferenceitemsmustnotmatchthegrammaticalitemitrefersto.Whatmustmatchorthesemanticpropertiesofreferenceiteminrelationtotheitemsitrefersto.
Referencecanbesub-categorizeasfollow
Reference
ExophoraEndophora
AnaphoraCataphora
Exophora
Itindicatessituationalreferences.Anaphorasignalsthatreferencemustbemadetothecontextofsituation.Itisoutsidethetextsoitiscalledanaphoricreference.
Example;
Forhe’sajollygoodfellowandsosayallofus.
Heretextisnotindicatingwhoheis?
Hecanberecognizedbythesituationinwhichexpressionisused.Theyarenotsourceofcohesionbecausetherepresuppositioncannotberesolvedwithinthetextratherthepresuppositionisfoundoutsidethetext.
Endophora
Itisageneralnameforreferencewithinthetext.Thisreferencecanbeoftwotypes.
(i)Anaphora:
Referenceback
(ii)Cataphora:
Referenceforward
Example:
Child:
Whydoesthatonecomeout?
Parent:
Thatwhat
Child:
Thatone.
Parent:
Thatonewhat?
Child:
Thatlevertherethatyoupushtoletthewaterout.
Thatonethatlever(cataphoricreference)
Thatleverthatone(anaphoricreference)
Typesofreference
Therearethreetypesofreference
(i)PersonalReference
(ii)DemonstrativeReference
(iii)ComparativeReference
ItisbetterfirstexplainthestructureofnominalgroupthenproceedtowardsthreetypesofRefer
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