西方文化入门Physical Science and Philosophy in 17th Century.docx
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西方文化入门Physical Science and Philosophy in 17th Century.docx
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西方文化入门PhysicalScienceandPhilosophyin17thCentury
2011年西方文化入门(Handout12)
DevelopmentinPhysicalScienceandPhilosophyin17thCentury
December,2011
1.FromCopernicustoKepler(从哥白尼到开普勒)
ThefirstmajoradvanceofmodernscienceoccurredinastronomyandCopernicuswastheleadingfigurethoughhedidnotbelongtothe17thcentury.NicolausCopernicus(1473—1543)wasanimmediateforerunnerofmodernscience.HischiefworkOntheRevolutionsoftheHeavenlySpheres(《天体运转》)waspublishedin1543.Inthismathematicaldescriptionoftheheavens,Copernicusputforwardhistheorythatthesun,nottheearth,isthecentreoftheuniverse.“InthemiddleofallsitstheSunenthroned.Inthismostbeautifultemple,couldweplacethisluminaryinanybetterpositionfromwhichhecanilluminatethewholeatonce?
HeisrightlycalledtheLamp,theMind,theRuleroftheUniverse…SotheSunsitsasuponaroyalthrone,rulinghischildren,theplanetswhichcircleroundhim.”
CopernicuswenttoPolishUniversityofCracow,studyingLatin,mathematicsandastronomy.In1496heleftforItalywherehespentthenexttenyearsstudyingatvariousuniversities.AfterreturningtoPoland,hebeganacareerinthechurchandatthesametimecontinuedwithhisworkontheproblemsofastronomy.AtthattimethePtolemaicsystemwasacceptedbyalmostalllearnedmen,whichsaidthattheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverse.ThePtolemaictheorywasinagreementwiththereligiousdoctrines.Copernicustookuptheideaofsomeancientphilosophersthatthesunratherthantheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverse.Usinglogicandmathematics,CopernicusconcludedthatthatPtolemy’ssystemwasnotcorrect.Foronethingitcouldnotaccountforthemovementsoftheheavenlybodiesasseeninthesky.Copernicus’shypothesiswasregardedasheresy,foraccordingScriptureJoshuahadcausedthesuntostandstillintheheaven.Copernicushadnowishtoquarrelwiththeauthorityofthechurch.ItwasonlyattheurgingofotherscholarsandscientiststhatCopernicusallowedhiscompletebookOntheRevolutionsoftheHeavenlySpherestobepublishedshortlybeforehisdeathonMay24,1543.
ThepublicationoftheCopernicantheorywasthefirstseriousirruptionofscience.Itlaidthefoundationformanyfurtherscientificdiscoveries.Engelssaid,
“Therevolutionaryactbywhichnaturalsciencedeclareditsindependence…wasthepublicationoftheimmortalworkbywhichCopernicusthrewdownthegauntlettoecclesiasticalauthorityintheaffairsofnature.Theemancipationofnaturalsciencefromtheologydatesfromthisact…Thenceforward,thedevelopmentofthesciencesproceededwithgiantstrides,anditmightbesaid,gainedinforceinproportiontosquarethedistance(intime)fromitspointofdeparture.”
(DialecticsofNature《自然辩证法》)
However,Copernicus’sheliocentrictheorywasputforwardonlyasahypothesis.Nodoubtitwastheboldestoneinhisowntime,butCopernicuswasnotinthepositiontogiveanyconclusiveevidenceinfavourofhishypothesis.
JohannesKepler(1571—1630),aGermanastronomer,wasanimportantastronomerafterCopernicuswhoadoptedtheheliocentrictheory.Keplerisbestknownforhisdiscoveryofthethreelawsofplanetarymotion,thethreelawsbeingcalledtheKepler’sLaws.Theymaybestatedasfollows:
1)Eachplanetmovesinanellipse,notaperfectcircle,withthesunatonefocus;
2)Eachplanetmovesmorerapidlywhennearthesunthanfartherfromit;
3)Thedistanceofeachplanetfromthesunbearsadefiniterelationtothetimeperiodtheplanettooktocompletearevolutionaroundthesun.
Kepler’slawssupported,clarifiedandamendedtheCopernicansystemandturnedthesystemfromageneraldescriptionofthesunandtheplanetsintoaprecisemathematicalformula.ThesethreelawsformedthebasisofallmodernplanetaryastronomyandledtoNewton’sdiscoveryofthelawsofgravitation.
2.GalileoGalilei(1564—1642)(伽利略),anItalianphysicist
Galileoisthegreatestnameinthephysicsofthisperiod.Hisfather,aFlorentine,taughthimLatin,Greek,mathematicsandmusic.Galileoalsolikedtodrawandpaint.At17hewassenttostudymedicineattheUniversityofPisa,butsoonhisinterestandattentionweredrawntophysicsandmathematics.AconvincedCopernican,hewaseagertousethenewlyinventedinstrumenttoobservetheheavenlybodies.Hewasthefirstpersontoapplythetelescopetothestudyoftheskyandhemadehimselfatelescopewhichmagnifiedobjectsathousandtimesandusedittoobservethestars.In1609heannouncedaseriesofastronomicaldiscoveries.HisimportantastronomicaldiscoveriesareincludedinhisbookSidereusNuncius(TheStarryMessenger),publishedin1610.ThefollowingpassagerevealedtheexcitementGalileoexperienced:
“Thatwhichwillexcitethegreatestastonishmentbyfar,andwhichindeedespeciallymovedmetocalltheattentionofallastronomersandphilosophersisthis,namely,thatIhavediscoveredfourplanets,neitherknownnordiscoveredbyanyoneoftheastronomersbeforemytime…Bytheaidofatelescopeanyonemaybeholdthisinamannerwhichsodistinctlyappealstothesensesthatallthedisputeswhichhavetormentedphilosophersthroughsomanyagesareexplodedatoncebytheirrefragableevidenceofoureyes,andwearefreedfromwordydisputesuponthissubject,fortheGalaxyisnothingelsebutamassofinnumerablestarsplantedtogetherinacluster.Uponwhateverpartofityoudirectthetelescopestraightwayavastcrowdofstarspresentsitselftoviews;manyofthemaretolerablylargeandextremelybright,butthenumberofsmallonesisquitebeyonddetermination.”
(L.S.Stavrianos:
TheWorldSince1500)
Galileo’sdiscoveriesprovedthevalidityoftheCopernicanhypothesisandstruckafrighteningblowtothechurch.Manytheologiansfeltthatifthistheorywaswidelyaccepted,theBiblewouldloseauthorityandChristianitywouldsuffer.AtfirstthechurchtriedtomakeGalileodeclarethattheCopernicantheorywasonlyahypothesis.GalileorefusedtodosoandthisledtohistrialbytheInquisition.OnFebruary26,1616,hewasforcedtogiveuphisviewinapublicdeclaration.
Galileohadachievementsintheresearchofdynamicsandfoundthelawofinertiaandthelawoffallingbody:
Thelawofinertia
Everybody,ifleftalone,willcontinuetomoveinastraightlinewithuniformvelocity;anychange,eitherintherapidityorthedirectionofmotion,requirestobeexplainedasduetotheactionofsome“force”.
Thelawoffallingbody
Whenabodyisfallingfreely,itsaccelerationisconstant,exceptinsofarastheresistanceoftheairmayinterfere,andtheaccelerationisthesameforallbodies,heavyorlight,greatorsmall.Theaccelerationofafallingbodydoesnotdependonitsmass.
3.SirIsaacNewton(1642—1727)(艾萨克·牛顿爵士)
EnglishmanIsaacNewtondrewontheworkofhispredecessorsandhisownbrilliancetosolvethemajorremainingproblemoftheplanetarymotionandtoestablishabasisforphysicsthatenduredmorethantwocenturies.Thequestionthatcontinuedtoperplexseventeenth-centuryscientistswhoacceptedthetheoriesofCopernicus,Kepler,andGalileowashowtheplanetsandotherheavenlybodiesmovedinanorderlyfashion.ThePtolemaicandAristoteliananswerhadbeenthecrystallinespheresandauniversearrangedintheorderofheavinessofitsparts.Manyunsatisfactorytheorieshadbeensetforthtodealwiththequestion.
In1687NewtonpublishedTheMathematicalPrinciplesofNaturalPhilosophy(《自然哲学的数学原理》),betterknownbyitsLatintitleofPrincipiaMathematica.Muchoftheresearchandthinkingforthisgreatworkhadtakenplacemorethanfifteenyearsearlier.NewtonwasheavilyindebtedtotheworkofGalileoandparticularlytothelatter’sviewthatinertiaappliedtobodiesbothatrestandinmotion.Galileo’smathematicalbiaspermeatedNewton’sthought.Newtonreasonedthattheplanetsandallotherphysicalobjectsintheuniversemovedthroughmutualattraction,orgravity.Everyobjectintheuniverseaffectedeveryotherobjectthroughgravity.Theattractionofgravityexplainedwhytheplanetsmovedinanorderlyratherthanachaoticmanner.Hehadfoundthat“theforceofgravitytowardsthewholeplanetdidarisefromandwascompoundedoftheforcesofgravitytowardsallitsparts,andtowardseveryonepartwasintheinverseproportionofthesquaresofthedistancesfromthepart.Newtonprovedthisrelationshipmathematically.Hemadenoattempttoexplainthenatureofgravityitself.
Newtonwasagreatmathematicalgenius,buthealsoupheldtheimportanceofempiricaldataandobservation.LikeFrancisBacon,hebelievedthatonemustobservephenomenabeforeattemptingtoexplainthem.Thefinaltestofanytheoryorhypothesisforhimwaswhetheritdescribedwhatcouldactuallybeobserved.HewasagreatopponentofrationalismoftheFrenchphilosopherDescartes,whichhebelievedincludedinsufficientguardsagainsterror.AsNewton’stheoryofuniversalgravitationbecameincreasinglyaccepted,sotoowasBaconianempiricism.
Newton’sReconciliationofScienceandFaith
WiththeworkofNewton,thenaturaluniversebecamearealmoflawandregularity.Beliefsinspiritsanddivinitieswerenolongernecessarytoexplainitsoperation.Thus,theScientificRevolutionliberatedhumanbeingsfromthefearofchaoticorhaphazarduniverse.Mostofthescientistswereverydevoutpeople.TheysawinthenewpictureofphysicalnatureanewpicturealsoofGod.TheCreatorofthisrational,lawfulnaturemustalsoberational.TostudynaturewastocometoabetterunderstandingofthatCreator.Sciencean
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