French Revolution 法国革命.docx
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French Revolution 法国革命.docx
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FrenchRevolution法国革命
Chapter15:
FrenchRevolution
Pre-reading
A.Skimandscanthefollowingpassageandanswerthefollowingquestions.
1.WhatwerethemajorcausesoftheFrenchRevolution?
2.WhatwasthebeginningoftheRevolutionlike?
3.WhatwerethefeaturesoftheperiodofthemoderateRevolution?
4.WhatwerethefeaturesoftheperiodoftheradicalRevolution?
5.WhatisthehistoricalsignificanceoftheFrenchRevolution?
Reading
I
INTRODUCTION
FrenchRevolution, major transformationofthesocietyandpoliticalsystemofFrance,lastedfrom1789to1799.DuringthecourseoftheRevolution,Francewastemporarilytransformedfromanabsolutemonarchy,wherethekingmonopolizedpower,toarepublicoftheoreticallyfreeandequalcitizens.TheeffectsoftheFrenchRevolutionwerewidespread,bothinsideandoutsideofFrance,andtheRevolutionranksasoneofthemostimportanteventsinthehistoryofEurope.
During the ten years oftheRevolution,FrancefirsttransformedandthendismantledtheOldRegime,thepoliticalandsocialsystemthatexistedinFrancebefore1789,andreplaceditwithaseriesofdifferentgovernments.Althoughnoneofthesegovernmentslastedmorethanfouryears,theyenactedpermanentlyalteredFrance'spoliticalsystembymakingintolawsuchactsasthedraftingofseveralbillsofrights(权利法案)andconstitutions(宪法),theestablishmentoflegalequalityamongallcitizens,experimentswithrepresentativedemocracy,theincorporationofthechurchintothestate,andthereconstructionofstateadministrationandthelawcode(法典).
Many of these changeswereadoptedelsewhereinEuropeaswell.Changewasamatterofchoiceinsomeplaces,butinothersitwasimposedbytheFrencharmyduringtheFrenchRevolutionaryWarsandtheNapoleonicWars.TolatergenerationsofEuropeansandnon-Europeanswhosoughttooverturntheirpoliticalandsocialsystems,theFrenchRevolutionprovidedthemostinfluentialmodelofpopularuprisinguntiltheRussianRevolutionof1917.
II
CAUSESOFTHEREVOLUTION
ItisnowcommonlybelievedthattherevolutionaryprocessstartedwithacrisisintheFrenchstate.By 1789 many French peoplehadbecomecriticalofthemonarchy,eventhoughithadbeenlargelysuccessfulinmilitarilydefendingFranceandinputtingdowndomesticreligiousandpoliticalviolence.Theyresented(怨恨)therisingandunequaltaxes,thepersecution(迫害)ofreligiousminorities,andgovernmentinterferenceintheirprivatelives.Theseresentments,coupledwithaninefficientgovernmentandanantiquated(陈旧的)legalsystem,madethegovernmentseemincreasinglyillegaltotheFrenchpeople.TheroyalcourtatVersailles,whichhadbeendevelopedtowellimpresstheFrenchpeopleandEuropegenerally,cametosymbolizethewasteandcorruptionoftheentireOldRegime(政权).
A
ParlementsandPhilosophes
During the 18th century,criticismoftheFrenchmonarchyalsocamefrompeoplewhoworkedfortheOldRegime.Someoftheking'sownministerscriticizedpastpracticesandproposedreforms,butamoreinfluentialsourceofdissentwastheparlements,13regionalroyalcourtsledbytheParlement(最高法院)ofParis.Theparlementswereempoweredtoregisterroyaldecrees,andalldecreeshadtoberegisteredbytheparlementsbeforebecominglaw.Inthiscapacity,theparlementsfrequentlyprotestedroyalinitiatives(优先权)thattheybelievedtothreatenthetraditionalrightsandlibertiesofthepeople.Inwidelydistributedpublications,theyshowedtheimageofahistoricallyfreeFranceanddenounced(谴责)theabsoluteruleofthecrownthatintheirviewthreatenedtraditionallibertiesbyimposingreligiousorthodoxy(正统)andnewtaxes.
These protests blendedwiththoseofothers,mostnotablyaninfluentialgroupofprofessionalintellectualscalledthephilosophes(哲学家).Likethosewhosupportedtheparlements,thephilosophesdidnotadvocateviolentrevolution.Yet,theyclaimedtospeakonbehalfofthepublic,arguingthatpeoplehadcertainnaturalrightsandthatgovernmentsexistedtoguaranteetheserights.Inastreamofpamphletsandtreatises—manyofthemprintedandcirculatedillegally—theyridiculed(嘲笑)theOldRegime'sinefficienciesanditsabusesofpower.
During this time, theparlementairesandthephilosophestogethercraftedavocabularythatwouldbeusedlatertodefineanddebatepoliticalissuesduringtheRevolution.Theyredefinedsuchtermsasdespotism,ortheoppressionofapeoplebyanarbitraryruler;libertyandrights;andthenation.
B
Fiscal(财政的)Crisis
The complaint of theFrenchpeoplemightnothavebroughtaboutapoliticalrevolutioniftherehadnotbeenafiscalcrisisinthelate1780s.LikesomuchelseintheOldRegime,themonarchy'sfinancialsystemwasinefficientandantiquated.Francehadneitheranationalbanknoracentralizednationaltreasury.Thenobilityandclergy—manyofthemverywealthy—paidsubstantiallylessintaxesthanothergroups,notablythemuchpoorerpeasants.Similarly,theamountoftaxchargedvariedwidelyfromoneregiontoanother.
Besides, the monarchyalwaysspentmoreeachyearthanitcollectedintaxes,soitwasforcedtoborrowincreasinglyduringthe18thcentury,partlyduetothecostlywars.Largedebtsforcedthegovernmenttoborrowathigherinterestrates,furtheraddingtothealreadymassivedebt.By1789thestatewasforcedtospendnearlyhalfitsyearlyrevenuespayingtheinterestitowed.
B1
AttemptsatReform
Financial reform was attemptedbefore1789.Thegovernmenttriedtocutgovernmentexpensesincreaserevenues,andremovegovernmentrestrictionsonthesaleanddistributionofgraininordertoincreasegrainsalesand,inturn,governmentrevenue(税收).Thetreasurysystemwasreformedandananalysisofthestateofgovernmentfinancewaspublishedasameanstorestorepublicconfidence.Mostofthesereformsweresoonundoneduetopressurefrommanyfinancialgroups,andthegovernmentcontinuedtoborrowathighratesofinterestthroughthe1780s.
In1786,Calonne,ministeroffinanceproposedanewgeneralplan.Hewantedtoarrangefornewloanstocoverimmediateexpenses,revoke(废除)sometaxexemptions(豁免),replaceoldertaxeswithanewuniversallandtaxandastamptax(印花税),convene(召集)regionalassembliestooversee(检查)thenewtaxes,andremovemorerestrictionsfromthegraintrade.
B2
AssemblyofNotablesandEstates-General
To pressure the parlementsintoacceptingtheplan,CalonnedecidedtogainpriorapprovalofitfromanAssemblyofNotables—agroupofhand-pickeddignitaries(权贵)hethoughtwouldsympathizewithhisviews.Buttheassemblyrefusedtobelievethatafinancialcrisisreallyexisted.Theysuspectedthatthemonarchywasonlytryingtosqueezemoremoneyfromthepeople.CalonnewasfiredandreplacedbyBrienne,who also failedtowinovertheassembly.Thenthegovernmentabolishedalltheparlementsinageneralrestructuringofthejudiciary.
Public response to theactionsofthekingwasstrongandevenviolent.Peoplebegantoignoreroyaledictsandassaultroyalofficials.Todealwiththecrisis,peoplebegantocallforanimmediatemeetingoftheEstates-General(三级会议),aconsultativeassemblycomposedofrepresentativesfromthethreesocialclasses:
clergy,nobility,andcommoners.Ithadlastbeenconvenedin1614.Underincreasingpoliticalpressureandfacedwiththetotalcollapseofitsfinances,theEstates-GeneralwascalledtomeetonMay1,1789.
III
BEGINNINGOFREVOLUTION
Almost immediately contention(争论)aroseregardingvotingproceduresintheupcomingEstates-General.Initslastmeeting,votinghadbeenorganizedbyestate,witheachofthethreeestatesmeetingseparatelyandeachhavingonevote.Inthiswaytheprivilegedclasseshadcombinedtooutvotethethirdestate,whichconstitutedmorethan90percentofthepopulation.Inregistering(写下)theedict(法令)toconvenetheEstates-General,theParlementofParisruledinfavorofkeepingthisformofvoting,probablymoretopreventthemonarchyfromexploitinganynewvotingsystemtoitsadvantagethantopreservenobleprivilege.However,manyobserversreadthisdecisionasabetrayalofthethirdestate.Asaresult,afloodofpamphletsappeareddemandingavotebyheadattheEstates-General—thatis,aprocedurewherebyeachdeputywastocastonevoteinasinglechambercomposedofallthreeestates.Thismethodwouldgiveeachestateanumberofvotesthatmoreaccuratelyrepresenteditspopulationandwouldmakeitmoredifficultforthefirsttwoestatestoroutinelyoutvotethethird.Nowtwobattleswerebeingwagedatthesametime:
onetoprotectthenation'slibertyagainstroyaldespotism,andtheotheroverhowthenationwouldberepresentedintheEstates-General.
When the Estates-GeneralassembledatVersaillesinMay1789,themonarchyproposednospecificfinancialplanfordebateandleftthevotingissueunsettled.Asaresult,theestatesspenttheirtimeengagedindebateofthevotingprocedure,andlittlewasaccomplished.
A
NationalAssembly
Five wasted weeks later,thethirdestatefinallytooktheinitiativebyinvitingtheclergyandnobilitytojointheminasingle-chamberedlegislaturewherethevotingwouldbebyhead.Someindividualmembersoftheotherestatesdidso,andonJune17,1789,theytogetherproclaimedthemselvestobetheNationalAssembly(国民议会).
When officials lockedtheirregularmeetingplacetoprepareitforaroyaladdress,membersoftheNationalAssemblyconcludedtheirinitiativewasabouttobecrushed.Regroupingatane
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