内隐自尊心理学专业英语.docx
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内隐自尊心理学专业英语.docx
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内隐自尊心理学专业英语
ILikeMyselfbutIDon'tKnowWhy:
EnhancingImplicitSelf-Esteemby
SubliminalEvaluativeConditioning
Onthebasisofaconceptualizationofimplicitself-esteemastheimplicitattitudetowardtheself,itwaspredictedthatimplicitself-esteemcouldbeenhancedbysubliminalevaluativeconditioning.In5experiments,participantswererepeatedlypresentedwithtrialsinwhichthewordIwaspairedwithpositivetraitterms.Relativetocontrolconditions,thisprocedureenhancedimplicitself-esteem.Theeffectsgeneralizedacross3measuresofimplicitself-esteem(Experiments1-3).Furthermore,evaluativeconditioningenhancedimplicitself-esteemamongpeoplewithlow-temporalimplicitself-esteemandamongpeoplewithhigh-temporalimplicitself-esteem(Experiment4).Inaddition,itwasshownthatconditioningenhancedself-esteemtosuchanextentthatitmadeparticipantsinsensitivetonegativeintelligencefeedback(Experiments5aand5b).Variousimplicationsarediscussed.
Thefactisindubitablethatone'sownchildrenalwayspassfortheprettiestandbrightest,thewinefromone'sowncellarforthebest—atleastforitsprice,—one'sownhouseandhorsesforthefinest.(Horwicz,ascitedinJames,1890,p.326)
Ourpreferenceforourownchildren,wine,house,andforsomeofus,evenourownhorses,overthoseofothersisrootedinapervasiveanduniversalhumanneed:
theneedtofeelgoodaboutoneself.Thescientificinvestigationofthisneedormotivedatesbacktotheorizingonself-esteem,andtheextremeformitcantakethatJamescalled"self-love"(1890,pp.309-329).Theattentionthetopicofself-esteemreceivedfromthescientificcommunitywas,andstillis,enormous.
Theneedforself-esteemisoftenregardedasacoreconcernofhumans,andvariousmodelsandtheoriespointoutthathighself-esteembenefitspeopleinimportantways(seeBaumeister,1998).Self-affirmationtheory(Steele,1988)positsthathighself-esteemisabufferagainststressandexperiencesoffailures.Likewise,TaylorandBrown(1988)havearguedthatapositiveviewoftheselfpromoteshappinessandmentalhealthingeneral.Terror-managementtheory(e.g.,Greenbergetal.,1992)proposesthathighself-esteemhelpspeopletodealwithexistentialthreats.Inaddition,researchonthesociometermodel(e.g.,Leary&Baumeister,2000)showsthathighself-esteemisasignofsocialacceptanceandliking.Ingeneral,amoderateorhighlevelofself-esteemseemstobeaprerequisiteforhealthyhumanfunctioning.Itshouldcomeasnosurprise,then,thatthevastmajorityofpeopleindeedviewthemselvesratherpositively.Thatis,theyhavemoderateorhighself-esteem(Banaji&Prentice,1994;Baumeister,1998;Greenwald,1980;Taylor&Brown,1988).
ImplicitSelf-Esteem:
Important,butElusive
Inthepast20years,socialpsychologyhaswitnessedanimportantshift.Atfirst,socialpsychology'scoreconceptswerelargelyviewedasbeingtheresultofconsciousprocesses.Todayitisrecognizedthatautomaticorunconsciousprocessesplayamajorroleinalmostallsocialpsychologicalprocesses(Bargh,1984;Bargh&Chartrand,1999;Devine,1989;Dijksterhuis&Bargh,2001;Fazio,1990;Greenwald&Banaji,1995;Wegner&Bargh,1998).Thescientificinvestigationofself-esteemisnoexception.Whereasself-esteemusedtobeseenastheresultofconsciousself-evaluativeprocesses,muchrecentworkhasemphasizedtheroleofunconsciousorimplicitself-evaluativeprocesses(e.g.,Brown,1993;Greenwald&Banaji,1995;Kitayama&Karasawa,1997;Koole,Dijksterhuis,&vanKnippenberg,2001;Pelham,Mirenberg,&Jones,2002).Asaresult,thesedaysresearchersdifferentiatebetweenexplicitself-esteemandimplicitself-esteem.Theformerisbasedonconsciousprocesses,whereasthelatteristheresultofautomaticself-evaluativeprocesses.Itreflectsunconsciousassociationswiththeself(Greenwald&Banaji,1995;Koole&Pelham,inpress).
GreenwaldandBanaji(1995)treatimplicitself-esteemasanattitudinalconstructanddefineitas"theintrospectivelyunidentified(orinaccuratelyidentified)effectoftheself-attitudeonevaluationofself-associatedandself-dissociatedobjects"(p.11).Accordingtothisdefinition,self-esteemgoeshandinhandwithapositiveevaluationofself-associatedstimuli.Aswaspreviouslysuggestedintheintroductoryquote,thereissomeevidenceforthistendencytolikeself-associatedobjects.Peoplelikevariousmundaneobjects(suchaspensormugs)moreassoonastheyownthem(Kahneman,Knetsch,&Thaler,1990).Peoplelikepeoplemorewhentheyaremembersofthesamegrouporsocialcategory(Tajfel,1970),andpeopledisplayapreferenceforthelettersintheirownnameoverotherlettersandapreferencefortheirbirthdaynumbersoverothernumbers(Kitayama&Karasawa,1997;Nuttin,1987).
Despitethefactthatthestudyofimplicitself-esteemhasonlyjustbegun,wealreadyhavegoodreasonstobelievethatimplicitself-esteemisofconsiderableimportance.Low-implicitself-esteemhasnegativeconsequencesthataretoalargeextentcomparabletothoseoflow-explicitself-esteem.Justasthreatstotheself-conceptleadtodecreasedexplicitself-esteem,theyalsoleadtolowerimplicitself-esteem(Jones,Pelham,Mirenberg,&Hetts,2002;Koole,Smeets,vanKnippenberg,&Dijksterhuis,1999).Furthermore,the"buffer"functionofself-esteemagainstthreateningexperienceshasbeendemonstratedforimplicitself-esteem.Relativetopeoplewithhigh-implicitself-esteem,peoplewithlow-implicitself-esteemshowdiminishedlevelsofaspirationafterfailure(Greenwald&Farnham,2000)andmoreanxietyduringaverypersonalinterviewthanhigh-implicitself-esteemindividuals(Spalding&Hardin,1999).Ithasbeenarguedthatinsomespecificcasesthebufferfunctionofimplicitself-esteemcouldwellbemoreimportantthanthatofexplicitself-esteem(Hetts&Pelham,2001).Existentialthreatshavebeenshowntooperatemoststronglyatunconsciouslevels(Arndt,Greenberg,Pyszczyn-ski,&Solomon,1997),renderingitlikelythathigh-implicitself-esteemratherthanhigh-explicitself-esteemisthemainprerequisiteforcopingwithsuchthreats.Inaddition,HettsandPelham(2001)discussedpreliminaryevidencesuggestingthathigh-implicitself-esteemmaybemoreimportantforcopingwithstigmatizationthanhigh-explicitself-esteem.
Despitetheseencouragingfindings,thestudyofimplicitself-esteemisnotwithoutproblems.Whereasitisknowntosomeextentwhatimplicitself-esteemdoes(seepreviousparagraphs),wedonotyetquiteknowwhatitis.Themajorreasonisthatresearchershaveusedmanydifferentmeasuresofimplicitself-esteem.SpaldingandHardin(1999)usedaprimingmeasurebasedonworkbyFazioandcolleagues(e.g.,Fazio,Jackson,Dunton,&Williams,1995).GreenwaldandFarnham(2000)usedaself-esteemImplicitAssociationTest(IAT),andvariousothers(Kooleetal.,2001;Pelhametal.,2002)usedname-letterpreferences(Nuttin,1987).Inarecentcontribution,Bosson,Swann,andPennebaker(2000)tookacloselookatvariousmeasuresofimplicitself-esteemandhadtodrawrathersoberingconclusions.Mostimportant,theyshowedthatthesevenmeasurestheyinvestigateddidnotcorrelatewitheachother(and,asanaside,notwithmeasuresofexplicitself-esteem).Inaddition,theyshowedthatthepredictivevalidityofthesemeasureswasratherpoorandthatthetest-retestreliabilityofonlytwooutofthesevenmeasureswasacceptable(seealsoGreenwald&Farnham,2000;Koole,Dijksterhuis,&vanKnippenberg,2001;Kooleetal.,1999).TheconclusionsBossonetal.drewwerediscouraging.Thebottomlineisthatresearchersarefacedwithanumberofinterestingandpotentiallyimportantfindingsthatarelumpedtogetherundertheheaderofeffectsofimplicitself-esteem,whileatthesametimeimplicitself-esteemremainsveryelusiveataconceptuallevel.
TotheCoreofthePhenomenon
Themaingoalofthisarticlewastoshedsomemorelightonwhatimplicitself-esteemis.MyapproachisaimedattryingtograspandmanipulatewhatIthinkconstitutestheessenceofimplicitself-esteem.Becauseithasbeenconvincinglyshownthatthemanymeasuresofimplicitself-esteemareuncorrelated(oratleasthardlycorrelated),itisworthwhiletopursueadifferentstrategy.Ratherthancomparingmeasures,inthisarticleItrytomanipulateimplicitself-esteemataverybasiclevel.Withsuchamanipulation,Ihopetoachievetwogoals.First,Iwanttoshowthatsuchamanipulationwillshoweffectsonseveral(uncorrelated)measuresofimplicitself-esteem.Thesecondgoalistoinvestigatetheeffectsofthissamemanipulationinanareathatistraditionallyassociatedwiththestudyofself-esteem,namelythewaypeopledealwith(negative)personalityorintelligencefeedback.
Theaimtomanipulateimplicitself-esteemwastranslatedintoanaimtoenhanceimplicitself-esteem,becauseIdeemeditethicallyinappropriatetotrytoreduceimplicitself-esteemwithevaluativeconditioning.1Now,howcanimplicitself-esteembeenhanced?
Howcanpeoplebeinducedtoliketheirnamelettersortheirhorsesmore?
GreenwaldandBanaji's(1995)andothers'conceptualizationofimplicitself-esteemasanattitudinalconstruct※opensaninterestingpossibility.Attitudescanbeformedorchangedinabasicstructuralfashionthroughevaluativeconditioning(Levey&Martin,1975;forareview,seealsoDeHouwer,Thomas,&Baeyens,2001).Inevaluative-conditioningresearch,anattitudeobject(conditionedstimulus,orCS)ispairedwithapositivelyornegativelyvalencedstimulus(unconditionedstimulus,orUS).Afterrepeatedpairings,theattitudeo
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