History of electrical engineeringWord文档格式.docx
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History of electrical engineeringWord文档格式.docx
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[edit]Earlydevelopments
Electricityhasbeenasubjectofscientificinterestsinceatleastthe17thcentury,butitwasnotuntilthe19thcenturythatresearchintothesubjectstartedtointensify.NotabledevelopmentsinthiscenturyincludetheworkofGeorgOhm,whoin1827quantifiedtherelationshipbetweentheelectriccurrentandpotentialdifferenceinaconductor,MichaelFaraday,thediscovererofelectromagneticinductionin1831,andJamesClerkMaxwell,whoin1873publishedaunifiedtheoryofelectricityandmagnetisminhistreatiseonElectricityandMagnetism.[2]
Duringtheseyears,thestudyofelectricitywaslargelyconsideredtobeasubfieldofphysics.Itwasnotuntilthelate19thcenturythatuniversitiesstartedtoofferdegreesinelectricalengineering.TheDarmstadtUniversityofTechnologyfoundedthefirstchairandthefirstfacultyofelectricalengineeringworldwidein1882.In1883DarmstadtUniversityofTechnologyandCornellUniversityintroducedtheworld'
sfirstcoursesofstudyinelectricalengineeringandin1885theUniversityCollegeLondonfoundedthefirstchairofelectricalengineeringintheUnitedKingdom.[3]TheUniversityofMissourisubsequentlyestablishedthefirstdepartmentofelectricalengineeringintheUnitedStatesin1886.[4]
ThomasEdisonbuilttheworld'
sfirstlarge-scaleelectricalsupplynetwork
Duringthisperiod,theworkconcerningelectricalengineeringincreaseddramatically.In1882,Edisonswitchedontheworld'
sfirstlarge-scaleelectricalsupplynetworkthatprovided110voltsdirectcurrenttofifty-ninecustomersinlowerManhattan.In1887,NikolaTeslafiledanumberofpatentsrelatedtoacompetingformofpowerdistributionknownasalternatingcurrent.InthefollowingyearsabitterrivalrybetweenTeslaandEdison,knownasthe"
WarofCurrents"
tookplaceoverthepreferredmethodofdistribution.ACeventuallyreplacedDCforgenerationandpowerdistribution,enormouslyextendingtherangeandimprovingthesafetyandefficiencyofpowerdistribution.
NikolaTeslamadelong-distanceelectricaltransmissionnetworkspossible.
Theeffortsofthetwodidmuchtofurtherelectricalengineering—Tesla'
sworkoninductionmotorsandpolyphasesystemsinfluencedthefieldforyearstocome,whileEdison'
sworkontelegraphyandhisdevelopmentofthestocktickerprovedlucrativeforhiscompany,whichultimatelybecameGeneralElectric.However,bytheendofthe19thcentury,otherkeyfiguresintheprogressofelectricalengineeringwerebeginningtoemerge.[5]
[edit]Moderndevelopments
Emergenceofradioandelectronics
Duringthedevelopmentofradio,manyscientistsandinventorscontributedtoradiotechnologyandelectronics.InhisclassicUHFexperimentsof1888,HeinrichHertztransmitted(viaaspark-gaptransmitter)anddetectedradiowavesusingelectricalequipment.In1895,NikolaTeslawasabletodetectsignalsfromthetransmissionsofhisNewYorklabatWestPoint(adistanceof80.4km).[6]In1897,KarlFerdinandBraunintroducedthecathoderaytubeaspartofanoscilloscope,acrucialenablingtechnologyforelectronictelevision.[7]JohnFleminginventedthefirstradiotube,thediode,in1904.Twoyearslater,RobertvonLiebenandLeeDeForestindependentlydevelopedtheamplifiertube,calledthetriode.[8]In1920AlbertHulldevelopedthemagnetronwhichwouldeventuallyleadtothedevelopmentofthemicrowaveovenin1946byPercySpencer.[9][10]In1934theBritishmilitarybegantomakestridestowardsradar(whichalsousesthemagnetron),underthedirectionofDrWimperisculminatingintheoperationofthefirstradarstationatBawdseyinAugust1936.[11]
In1941KonradZusepresentedtheZ3,theworld'
sfirstfullyfunctionalandprogrammablecomputer.[12]In1946theENIAC(ElectronicNumericalIntegratorandComputer)ofJohnPresperEckertandJohnMauchlyfollowed,beginningthecomputingera.Thearithmeticperformanceofthesemachinesallowedengineerstodevelopcompletelynewtechnologiesandachievenewobjectives,includingtheApollomissionsandtheNASAmoonlanding.[13]
Theinventionofthetransistorin1947byWilliamB.Shockley,JohnBardeenandWalterBrattainopenedthedoorformorecompactdevicesandledtothedevelopmentoftheintegratedcircuitin1958byJackKilbyandindependentlyin1959byRobertNoyce.[14]In1968MarcianHoffinventedthefirstmicroprocessoratIntelandthusignitedthedevelopmentofthepersonalcomputer.ThefirstrealizationofthemicroprocessorwastheIntel4004,a4-bitprocessordevelopedin1971,butonlyin1973didtheIntel8080,an8-bitprocessor,makethebuildingofthefirstpersonalcomputer,theAltair8800,possible.[15]
[edit]Education
Electricalengineerstypicallypossessanacademicdegreewithamajorinelectricalengineering.ThelengthofstudyforsuchadegreeisusuallyfourorfiveyearsandthecompleteddegreemaybedesignatedasaBachelorofEngineering,BachelorofScience,BachelorofTechnologyorBachelorofAppliedSciencedependingupontheuniversity.Thedegreegenerallyincludesunitscoveringphysics,mathematics,projectmanagementandspecifictopicsinelectricalengineering.Initiallysuchtopicscovermost,ifnotall,ofthesub-disciplinesofelectricalengineering.Studentsthenchoosetospecializeinoneormoresub-disciplinestowardstheendofthedegree.
SomeelectricalengineersalsochoosetopursueapostgraduatedegreesuchasaMasterofEngineering/MasterofScience,aMasterofEngineeringManagement,aDoctorofPhilosophyinEngineeringoranEngineer'
sdegree.TheMasterandEngineer'
sdegreemayconsistofeitherresearch,courseworkoramixtureofthetwo.TheDoctorofPhilosophyconsistsofasignificantresearchcomponentandisoftenviewedastheentrypointtoacademia.IntheUnitedKingdomandvariousotherEuropeancountries,theMasterofEngineeringisoftenconsideredanundergraduatedegreeofslightlylongerdurationthantheBachelorofEngineering.[16]
[edit]Practicingengineers
Inmostcountries,aBachelor'
sdegreeinengineeringrepresentsthefirststeptowardsprofessionalcertificationandthedegreeprogramitselfiscertifiedbyaprofessionalbody.Aftercompletingacertifieddegreeprogramtheengineermustsatisfyarangeofrequirements(includingworkexperiencerequirements)beforebeingcertified.OncecertifiedtheengineerisdesignatedthetitleofProfessionalEngineer(intheUnitedStates,CanadaandSouthAfrica),CharteredEngineer(intheUnitedKingdom,Ireland,IndiaandZimbabwe),CharteredProfessionalEngineer(inAustraliaandNewZealand)orEuropeanEngineer(inmuchoftheEuropeanUnion).
Theadvantagesofcertificationvarydependinguponlocation.Forexample,intheUnitedStatesandCanada"
onlyalicensedengineermaysealengineeringworkforpublicandprivateclients"
.[17]ThisrequirementisenforcedbystateandprovinciallegislationsuchasQuebec'
sEngineersAct.[18]Inothercountries,suchasAustralia,nosuchlegislationexists.Practicallyallcertifyingbodiesmaintainacodeofethicsthattheyexpectallmemberstoabidebyorriskexpulsion.[19]Inthiswaytheseorganizationsplayanimportantroleinmaintainingethicalstandardsfortheprofession.Eveninjurisdictionswherecertificationhaslittleornolegalbearingonwork,engineersaresubjecttocontractlaw.Incaseswhereanengineer'
sworkfailsheorshemaybesubjecttothetortofnegligenceand,inextremecases,thechargeofcriminalnegligence.Anengineer'
sworkmustalsocomplywithnumerousotherrulesandregulationssuchasbuildingcodesandlegislationpertainingtoenvironmentallaw.
ProfessionalbodiesofnoteforelectricalengineersincludetheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers(IEEE)andtheInstitutionofElectricalEngineers(IEE).TheIEEEclaimstoproduce30percentoftheworld'
sliteratureinelectricalengineering,hasover360,000membersworldwideandholdsover300conferencesannually.[20]TheIEEpublishes14journals,hasaworldwidemembershipof120,000,andclaimstobethelargestprofessionalengineeringsocietyinEurope.[21][22]Obsolescenceoftechnicalskillsisaseriousconcernforelectricalengineers.Membershipandparticipationintechnicalsocieties,regularreviewsofperiodicalsinthefieldandahabitofcontinuedlearningarethereforeessentialtomaintainingproficiency.[23]
IncountriessuchasAustralia,CanadaandtheUnitedStateselectricalengineersmakeuparound0.25%ofthelabourforce(seenote).Outsideofthesecountries,itisdifficulttogaugethedemographicsoftheprofessionduetolessmeticulousreportingonlabourstatistics.However,intermsofelectricalengineeringgraduatesper-capita,electricalengineeringgraduateswouldprobablybemostnumerousincountriessuchasTaiwan,JapanandSouthKorea.[24]
[edit]Toolsandwork
FromtheGlobalPositioningSystemtoelectricpowergeneration,electricalengineersareresponsibleforawiderangeoftechnologies.Theydesign,develop,testandsupervisethedeploymentofelectricalsystemsandelectronicdevices.Forexample,theymayworkonthedesignoftelecommunicationsystems,theoperationofelectricpowerstations,thelightingandwiringofbuildings,thedesignofhouseholdappliancesortheelectricalcontrolofindustrialmachinery.[25]
SatelliteCommunicationsisoneofmanyprojectsanelectricalengineermightworkon
Fundamentaltothedisciplinearethesciencesofphysicsandmathematicsasthesehelptoobtainbothaqualitativeandquantitativedescriptionofhowsuchsystemswillwork.Todaymostengineering
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