AP Biology Summer AssignmentWord格式文档下载.docx
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AP Biology Summer AssignmentWord格式文档下载.docx
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2.Populationecologyfocus:
factorsthataffecthowmanyindividualsofaparticularspeciesliveinanarea.
Whatenvironmentalfactorsaffectthereproductiverateofdeermice?
3.Communityecologyfocus:
howinteractionssuchaspredation,competition,anddisease,aswellasabioticfactorssuchasdisturbance,affectcommunitystructureandorganization.
Whatfactorsinfluencethediversityofspeciesthatmakeupaparticularforest?
4.Ecosystemecologyfocus:
energyflowandchemicalcyclingamongthevariousbioticandabioticcomponents.
Whatfactorscontrolphotosyntheticproductivityinatemperategrasslandecosystem?
5.Landscapeecologyfocus:
factorscontrollingexchangesofenergy,materials,andorganismsamongtheecosystempatchesmakingupalandscapeorseascape.
Towhatextentdothetreesliningthedrainagechannelsinthislandcapeserveascorridorsofdispersalforforestanimals?
2.GiveanexampleofapurposefullyintroducedspeciesandanaccidentallyintroducedspeciesthathavebecomepestsinNorthAmerica:
Accidentallyintroducedspecie:
Thefingernail-sizedzebramussel(Dreissenapolymorpha).
Ithasextensivelydisruptedfreshwaterecosystems,threateningnativeaquaticspeciesandhasalsocloggedwaterintakestructures,disruptingdomesticandindividualwatersuppliesandcausingbillionsofdollarsindamages.
Purposefullyintroducedspecie:
TheEuropeanstarling.
ItwasboughtintentionallyintoNewYorkandquicklyspreadacrossNorthAmerica,increasingtoapopulationofmorethan100millionanddisplacingmanynativesongbirds.
3.Mountainsaffectlocalclimate.Describetheirinfluenceinthefollowingthereareas:
a.Solarradiation:
South-facingslopesintheNorthernHemispherereceivemoresunlightthannearbynorth-facingslopesandarethereforewarmeranddrier.
b.Temperature:
Atanyparticularlatitude,airtemperaturedeclinesapproximately6°
Cwithevery1,000-mincreaseinelevation,parallelingthedeclineoftemperaturewithincreasinglatitude.
c.Rainfall:
Whenwarm,moistairapproachesamountain,theairrisesandcools,releasingmoistureonthewindwardsideofthepeal.ONtheleewardsideofthemountain,cooler,dryairdescends,absorbingmoistureandproducinga“rainshadow.”
4.Indicatewitha+or–whetherthefollowingarerelativelyhighorlowinoxygenlevel,nutrientcontentandproductivity.
Biome
Oxygenlevel
Nutrientcontent
Productivity
Oligotrophiclake
+
–
Eutrophiclake
Headwaterofstream
Turbidriver
Estuary
5.Defineecology:
Thescientificstudyoftheinteractionsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironmentiscalledecology.Ecologyrevealstherichnessofthebiosphere.Unlikethetermenvironmentalism,ecologyprovidestheunderstandingoftheoftencomplicatedanddelicaterelationshipsbetweenorganismsandtheenvironment,whichareusedtoaddresstheenvironmentalproblems.
6.Whatmethodsareusedtoanswerecologicalquestions?
Ecologistsgointotheecosystemstoobserve,butalsouseremotesensorsonaircraftandsatellitestocollectdataandanalyzegeographicdatainlargedatabases.Forexample,GeographicInformationSystems(GIS),remotesensing.GISorganizes,stores,andanalyzescomplexdatacollectedoverbroadgeographicareas.Ecologistsdevelopmathematicalandothermodelstosimulatethebehaviorofecosystems,andalsousecontrolledindoorandoutdoorchamberstostudyecosystems.
7.Whatarebiomes?
Anyoftheworld'
smajorecosystems,classifiedaccordingtothepredominantvegetationandcharacterizedbyadaptationsoforganismstothatparticularenvironment.
8.Whataccountsforthesimilaritiesinlifeformsfoundinthesametypeofbiomeingeographicallyseparatedareas?
Annualmeansfortemperatureandrainfallmaybeusedtoaccountforthat.Butitdoesn’tconfirmthatthesevariablesgovernthebiomes’location.Onlyadetailedanalysisofthewaterandtemperaturetolerancesofindividualspeciescouldestablishthecontrollingeffectsofthesevariables.
9.Manyanimalsbreedinthespringandearlysummer.Whatisaprobableproximatecauseofthisbehavior?
Probableultimatecause?
Proximatequestionsaboutbehaviorfocusontheenvironmentalstimuliwhileultimatequestionsaddresstheevolutionarysignificanceofabehavior.
Proximatecauseofthisbehaviormaybethatbreedingistriggeredbytheeffectofincreaseddaylengthonananimal’sproductionofandresponsestoparticularhormones.Indeed,experimentswithvariousanimalsdemonstratethatlengtheningdailyexposuretolightproducesneuralandhormonalchangesthatinducebehaviorassociatedwithreproduction.
Ultimatecauseofthisbehaviormaybethatthebehaviorincreasesfitnessinsomeparticularway.Areasonablehypothesisisthatbreedingismostproductiveatthattimeofyearwhichprovidesanadvantageinreproductivesuccesscomparedtoanimalsthatbreedinotherseasons.
10.Whatisthesignstimulusforattackbehaviorinmalesticklebackfish?
Thecolorredisakeycomponentofthesignstimulusreleasingaggressioninmalesticklebacks.
11.GiveanexampleofaFAPinahumaninfantandthesignstimulusthatelicitsit.
Humaninfantsgraspstronglywiththeirhandasaresponsetotactilestimulus.
12.ExplainhowZack’sstudyofwhelk-eatingcrowsupportstheoptimalforagingtheory.
Theoptimalforagingtheorymeanstofindthecompromisebetweenthebenefitsofnutritionandthecostsofobtainingfoodandtrytominimizesthecostsofforagingandmaximizesthebenefits.Zack’sstudyshowsthatadropheightofabout5misoptimal,breakingtheshellswiththelowesttotalflightheight-inotherword,withtheleastwork.Andthestudyalsoshowedthattheactualaverageflightheightforcrowsintheirwhelk-eatingbehaviorwas5,23m,whichisquietsimilartothelowesttotalflightheight,whichmeansthatthecrowstaketheoptimalflightheighttominimizetheirenergyandthengainrelativelyhighbenefitsofnutrition,andthisbehaviorsupportstheoptimalforagingtheory.
13.Indicatethetypeoflearningillustratedbythefollowingexamples:
a.Eweswilladoptandnursealambshortlyaftertheyfivebirthtotheirownlambbutwillbuttandrejectalambintroducedadayortwolater.
Associativelearning
b.Adog,whoseearly“accidents”werecleanedupwithpapertowelsaccompaniedwithharshdiscipline,hidesunderthebedanytimeapapertowelisusedinthehouse.
Associativelearning
c.Ducklingseventuallyignoreacardboardsilhouetteofahawkthatisrepeatedlyflownoverthem.
Habituation
d.Kittensstalkandpounceoneachother,bitingandkickingastheyrollaroundtogether.
e.InPavlov’sexperiments,theringingofabellcausedadogtosalivate.
14.Sowbugsareplacedinexperimentalchambersthatareeitherhumidordryandhavebothlightanddarkareas.Inthehumidchamber,thesowbugsmoveintothedarkareaandstopmoving.Inthedrychamber,theymoveintothedarkareaandcontinuetomoveaboutinthatarea.Explaintheseexperimentalresults.
Sowbugsinhumidchamberstendtostayinthemoistareaoncetheyencounterit.Sowbugsindrychambersincreasedtheirmovementinordertoincreasethechancetheyleavethedryareaandgetintoamoistarea.
15.Whyaremanyinteractionsbetweenmembersofthesamespeciesagonistic?
Theseagonisticbehaviorsareoftenritualizedconteststhatdeterminewhichcompetitorgainsaccesstoaresource,suchasfoodormates.Theoutcomeofsuchcontestsmaybedeterminedbystrength,size,ortheformofhorn,teeth,andsoforth,butthevictoriesmaybepsychologicalratherthanphysical.
16.Whatmechanismsreduceviolentencountersbetweenmembersofthesamesocialgroup?
Membersofthesamesocialgroupmayadoptabehavioralstrategytheycalledtitfortat.Inthetit-for-tatstrategy,anindividualtreatsanotherinthesamewayitwastreatedthelasttimetheymet.Individualsadoptingthisbehaviorarealwaysaltruistic,orcooperative,onthefirstencounterwithanotherindividualandwillremainsoaslongastheiraltruismisreciprocated.(Reciprocalaltruism)
17.Explainthebasisforthedistinctionbetweenmalecompetitionandfemalechoiceincourtshipbehavior.
Malecompetitionsareoftenritualizedthatdeterminedwhichonecangaintheaccesstoaresourcesuchasfoodormatesandthesebehaviorsareratherpsychologicalthanphysical.Femalechoiceincourtshipbehaviorcorrelatewiththemale’shealthandvitality.Afemalethatchoosesahealthymaleincreasestheprobabilityofproducinghealthyoffspring.
18.Naturalselectionhasresultedinexclusivemaleandparentalcarebeingmuchmorefrequentinspecieswithexternalfertilization,wherethemale’sgeneticcontributiontotheoffspringismorecertain.Explainhowsuchbehaviorcouldevolve.
Thecertaintyofpaternityisrelativelylowinmostspecieswithinternalfertilizationbecausetheactsofmatingandbirth(ormatingandegglaying)areseparatedovertime.Certaintyofpaternityismuchhigherwhenegglayingandmatingoccurtogether,asinexternalfertilization.Thus,thecertaintyofpaternityisimportanttotheexclusivemaleandparentalcare.Notonlyinthecasewhichexternalfertilizationi
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