国际商务英语课文电子版lesson 6.docx
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国际商务英语课文电子版lesson 6.docx
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国际商务英语课文电子版lesson6
Wheretherearenodifferencesamongcountriesinthebasiccapabilitiesatproducinggoods,otherbasesfortradeamongthemmaystillexist.First,patternsofdemandmaydifferamongnations.Forexample,mostconsumersinonecountrymayconsiderdogmeatadelicacy(deliciousfood),whileinanothercountrytheconsumptionofdogmeatisabhorrent.Inthiscasethesecondcountrymaysellitsdogmeattothefirstcountry.Tradewillbebasednotondifferencesintheproductioncapabilitiesofthetwocountriesbutondifferentconsumptionpreferences.
Second,trademayoccuroutofeconomiesofscale,thatis,thecostadvantagesoflarge-scaleproduction.Forexample,CountryAandCountryBmayhavethesamecapabilityinproducingcarsandcomputers,butthecostfortheproductionofbothcommoditieswilldecreaseifthegoodsareproducedonalargerscale.Bothcountriesmightfinditadvantageousifeachweretospecializecompletelyintheproductionofonecommodityandimporttheother.
Third,tradetakesplacebecauseofinnovationorstyle.EventhoughCountryAproducesenoughcarsatreasonable coststomeetitsowndemandandeventoexportsome,itmaystillimportcarsfromothercountriesforinnovationorvarietyofstyle.
Tosummarize,thetheoryofinternationalspecializationseekstoanswerthequestionwhichcountrieswillproducewhatgoods,withwhattradepatternsamongthem.Differencesinproductionconditions,theelementhighlighted(stressed)bythetheoryofcomparativeadvantage,providethemostimportantpartoftheanswer.Butacompleteanswermustalsotakeintoaccount otherfactorssuchaspatternsofdemand,economiesofscaleandinnovationorstyle.
Inreality,however,completespecializationmayneveroccurevenwhenitiseconomicallyadvantageous.Forstrategicordomesticreasons,acountrymaycontinuetoproducegoodsforwhichitdoesnothaveanadvantage.Thebenefitsofspecializationmayalsobeaffectedbytransportcost.Goodsandrawmaterialshavetobetransportedaroundtheworldandthecostofthetransportreducesthebenefitoftrade.Thecasewillbemoreseriouswithtransportingbulkyorperishablegoods.Protectionistmeasureswhichareoftentakenbygovernmentsarealsobarrierstotrade,andtypicalexamplesaretariffsandquotas.
Tariffbarriersarethemostcommonformoftraderestriction.Atariffisataxleviedonacommoditywhenitcrossestheboundaryofacustomsareawhichusuallycoincideswith theareaofacountry.Acustomsareaextendingbeyondnationalboundariestoincludetwoormoreindependentnationsiscalledacustomsunion.Importdutiesaretariffsleviedongoodsenteringan(customs)areawhileexportdutiesaretaxesleviedongoodsleavingan(customs)area.Theformertypeismorecommonthanthelatterasmostnationswanttoexpandexportsandincreasetheirforeignexchangeearnings(income).Importdutiesmaybeeitherspecific,oradvalorem,oracombinationofthetwo–compoundduties.Thetermdrawback referstodutiespaidonimportedgoodsthatarerefundedifthegoodsarereexported.Thetermmost-favored-nation(MFN)treatment referstoatarifftreatment.Underthistreatment,acountryisrequiredtoextendtoallsignatories(contractingparties)anytariffconcessions(关税减让)granted(given)toanyparticipatingcountry.However,MFNtreatmentisnotreallyspecialbutisjustnormaltradingstatus.Itgivesacountrythelowesttariffsonlywithinthetariff’sschedule,butitisstillpossibletohavelowertariffs.
Quotasorquantitative(quantity)restrictionsarethemostcommonformofnon-tariffbarriers.Aquotalimitstheimportsorexportsofacommodityduringagivenperiodoftime.Thelimitsmaybeinquantityorvalueterms,andquotasmaybeonacountrybasisorglobal,withoutreferenceto countries.Theymaybeimposed unilaterallyandcanalsobenegotiatedonaso-calledvoluntarybasis.Obviously,exportingcountriesdonotreadilyagreetolimittheirsales.Thus,the“voluntary”labelgenerallymeansthattheimportingcountryhasthreatenedtoimposeevenworserestrictionsifvoluntarycooperationisnotforthcoming.
Inadditiontovisibletrade,whichinvolvestheimportandexportofgoods,thereisalsoinvisibletrade,whichinvolvestheexchangeofservicesbetweencountries.
Transportationserviceacrossnationalboundariesisanimportantkindofinvisibletrade.Internationaltransportationinvolvesdifferentmeansoftransportsuchasoceanships,planes,trains,trucksandinlandwatervessels.However,themostimportantofthemismaritimeships.Whenanexporterarrangesshipment,hegenerallybooksspaceinthecargocompartmentofaship,orcharterawholevessel.SomecountriessuchasGreeceandNorwayhavelargemaritimefleetsandearnalotbywayofthisinvisibletrade.
Insuranceisanotherimportantkindofinvisibletrade.Inthecourseoftransportation,acargoisvulnerabletomanyriskssuchascollision,pilferage,fire,storm,explosion, andevenwar.Goodsbeingtransportedininternationaltrademustbeinsuredagainst lossordamage.Largeinsurancecompaniesprovideserviceforinternationaltradeandearnfeesforinsuringothernation'sforeigntrade.Lloyd's ofLondonisaleadingexporterofthisservice.
Tourismisyetanotherimportantformofinvisibletrade.Manycountriesmayhavebeautifulscenery,wonderfulattractions,placesofhistoricalinterest,ormerelyamildandsunnyclimate.Thesecountriesattractlargenumbersoftourists,whospendmoneyfortravelling,hotelaccommodations,meals,taxis,andsoon.Somecountriesdependheavilyontourismfortheirforeignexchangeearnings,andmanycountriesaremakinggreateffortstodeveloptheirtourism.
Thefourthtypeofinvisibletrademeriting (deserving)attentioniscalledimmigrantremittance.Thisreferstothemoneysentbacktohomecountriesbypeopleworkinginaforeignland.Importandexportoflabourservicemaybeundertaken byindividuals,ororganizedbycompaniesorevenbystates.Andthisisbecominganimportantkindofinvisibletradeforsomecountries.
Invisibletradecanbeasimportanttosomecountriesasvisibletradeistoothers.Inreality,thekindsoftradenationsengageinarevaried(various)andcomplex(complicated),oftenamixtureofvisibleandinvisibletrade.
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