胡壮麟 Chapter 03.docx
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胡壮麟Chapter03
ChapterThree
Lexicon
1.Whatisword?
⏹Aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.–Avaguedefinition.
⏹Threesensesareinvolvedindefining“word”,noneofwhichissatisfactorytocopewithallthesituations.
1.1Threesensesof“word”
⏹Aphysicalunit:
aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks,eg
⏹Phonological:
⏹Orthographic:
Itiswonderful.
⏹Threewordsarerecognized.
⏹However,incasualspeechorwriting,itoftenbecomes:
⏹Phonological:
⏹Orthographic:
It’swonderful.
⏹Aretheytwowordsorthree?
⏹Asetofforms:
walk,walks,walking,walked
⏹Howmanywordsarethere?
⏹Iusuallyhavedinnerat6butyesterdayIhaditatseven.
⏹Howmanytimesdidtheword“have”occur?
Alexicalitemoralexeme
⏹Alexicalitemisanentryinadictionary.AlexemeWRITEincludesallofitsgrammaticalforms:
⏹write,writes,writing,wrote,written
⏹Agrammaticalunit:
sentence
clause
phrase
word
morpheme
⏹Problem:
blackboard
1.2Identificationofwords
⏹Stability:
stablelinguisticunits.
⏹chairman,butnot*manchair
⏹Relativeuninterruptibility:
thoughwerecognizethreecomponentsintheworddisappointment,wecannotpauseandaddanothercomponentinbetween,asin*disinterestappointment.
⏹Butwecanaddanotherwordbetweenwords:
Paul,(John)andMary...
⏹Aminimumfreeform:
thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,eg
⏹—IsJanecomingtonight?
⏹—Possibly.
⏹Hi.
⏹Wonderful.
1.3Classificationofwords
⏹Variablevs.InvariableWords:
⏹Variablewords:
write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.
⏹Invariablewords:
since,when,seldom,through,etc.
⏹Grammaticalvs.LexicalWords:
⏹Grammatical/Functionwords:
conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.
⏹Lexical/Contentwords:
nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.
⏹Closed-classvs.Open-classWords:
⏹Closed-classwords:
Newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,egpronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.
⏹Open-classwords:
Newmemberscanbeadded,egnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.
⏹Wordclass:
knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.
⏹Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.
⏹Somenewtermsinwordclass:
⏹Particle:
infinitiveto,negativenot,subordinateunitsinphrasalverbs“getby”,“lookback”,etc.
⏹Auxiliary:
do,have
⏹Modalverbs:
can,will,may,must,etc.
⏹Pro-forms:
substitutesforotherterms.
⏹Pronoun:
he,she,I,they,everyone
⏹Pro-adjective:
Yourcarisred.Soishis.
⏹Pro-verb:
HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedid.
⏹Pro-adverb:
HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.
⏹Pro-locative:
Hewentthere.
⏹Determiner:
allthearticles,demonstratives,andquantifiersthatappearbeforethenounanditsmodifiers.
⏹Asmanyasthreedeterminersmaybeusedineachcaseandthereisafixedorderwhenthereismorethanone.
⏹Predeterminers:
all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters…;double,twice,threetimes…;such,what(exclamative)
⏹Centraldeterminers:
the;this,these,that,those;PossP;we,us;you;which,what(relative),what(interrogative);a,another,some,any,no,either,neither;each,enough,much,more,most,less;afew,alittle
⏹Postdeterminers:
every;many,several,few,little;one,two,three…;(a)dozen
⏹*theiralltrouble
⏹*fivetheallboys
⏹*allthisboy
⏹*allbothgirls
2.Morphology
⏹Morphology:
thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents–morphemes.
2.1Morphemes
⏹Thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.
2.2Typesofmorphemes
⏹Freevs.Boundmorphemes:
⏹Freemorphemes:
thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.
⏹Boundmorphemes:
thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.
⏹Root:
thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,egfriendasinunfriendliness.
⏹Rootsmaybe
⏹free:
thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egblack+board;nation+-al;or
⏹bound:
thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive.
⏹Affix:
thetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Normallydividedinto
⏹prefix(dis-,un-)and
⏹suffix(-en,-ify).
⏹Base:
amorphemetowhichanaffixisadded,eg
⏹friendroot>base
⏹friendlyroot/base+suffix>base
⏹unfriendlyprefix+base>base
⏹unfriendlinessbase+suffix>base?
⏹Stem:
amorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixmaybeadded,egfriend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.
⏹Inflection:
grammaticalendings,egplural,tense,comparative,etc.
⏹Derivation:
combinationofabaseandanaffixtoformanewword,egfriend+-ly>friendly.
2.3Word-formation
Inflection
⏹Nominalforms:
boys,boy’s
⏹Verbforms:
wants,wanted,wanting
⏹Adjective/adverbforms:
smaller,smallest
Compounding
⏹Twoormorefreerootscombinetomakeanewword.
⏹Nouncompounds:
daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmill
⏹Verbcompounds:
brainstorm,lipread,babysit
⏹Adjectivecompounds:
gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfree
⏹Prepositioncompounds:
into,throughout
⏹Endocentric&exocentric
⏹Endocentric:
oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof“akindof”;eg
⏹self-control:
akindofcontrol
⏹armchair:
akindofchair
⏹Exocentric:
thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething”,eg
⏹scarecrow:
notakindofcrow
⏹breakneck:
notakindofneck
⏹Writtenformsofcompounds
⏹Solid:
blackboard,teapot,bodyguard
⏹Hyphenated:
wedding-ring,wave-length
⏹Open:
coffeetable,washingmachine
⏹Freevariation:
⏹businessman,business-man,businessman
⏹winebottle,wine-bottle,winebottle
⏹noone,no-one,noone
Derivation
⏹Class-changing:
⏹N>V:
lengthen,hospitalize,discard
⏹N>A:
friendly,delightful,speechless
⏹V>N:
worker,employee,inhabitant
⏹V>A:
acceptable,adorable
⏹A>N:
rapidness,rapidity
⏹A>V:
deafen,sweeten
⏹Adj>Adv:
exactly,quickly
⏹Class-preserving:
⏹N>N:
nonsmoker,ex-wife,booklet
⏹V>V:
disobey,unfasten
⏹A>A:
grayish,irrelevant
3.Lexicalchange
⏹Formationofnewwords
⏹Phonologicalchange
⏹Morphosyntacticchange
⏹Semanticchange
⏹Orthographicchange
3.1Word-formationthroughlexicalchange
⏹Invention/Coinage
⏹Mostlybrandnames:
⏹Kodak,Coke,nylon,Band-aid,Xerox,Lycra
⏹Blending
⏹transfer+resistor>transistor
⏹smoke+fog>smog
⏹motorist+hotel>motel
⏹breakfast+lunch>brunch
⏹modulator+demodulator>modem
⏹dance+exercise>dancercise
⏹advertisement+editorial>advertorial
⏹education+entertainment>edutainment
⏹information+commercial>infomercial
⏹Back-formation
⏹diagnose ⏹enthuse ⏹laze ⏹liaise ⏹reminisce ⏹statistic ⏹televise ⏹burgle,commentate,edit,peddle,scavenge,sculpt,swindle ⏹air-condition,babysit,brainstorm,brainwash,browbeat,dry-clean,house-hunt,housekeep,sightsee,tape-record ⏹articulate,assassinate,coeducate,demarcate,emote,intuit,legislate,marinate,orate,vaccinate,valuate Abbreviations ⏹Clipping ⏹Back-clippings: ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),exam(ination),hippo(potamus),lab(oratory),piano(forte),reg(ulation)s ⏹Fore-clippings: (ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake ⏹Fore-and-aftclippings: (in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive) ⏹Acronym ⏹AIDS,Aids: AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome ⏹ASAP: assoonaspossible ⏹CD-ROM: compactdiscread-onlymemory ⏹WASP: whiteAnglo-Saxonprotestant ⏹dink(y): doubleincome,nokids ⏹nilk(y): noincome,lotsofkids ⏹Initialism ⏹AI: artificialintelligence ⏹a.s.a.p.: assoonaspossible ⏹ECU: EuropeanCurrencyUnit ⏹HIV: humanimmunodeficiencyvirus ⏹PC: personalcomputer ⏹PS: postscript ⏹RSVP: répondezs’ilvousplait(‘pleasereply’inFrench) Analogicalcreation ⏹Fromirregulartoregular: ⏹work: wrought>worked ⏹beseech: besought>beseeched ⏹slay: slew>slayed? ⏹go: went>goed? ? ? Borrowing ⏹French: administration,parliament,public,court,crime,judge,army,enemy,officer,peace,soldier,war,faith,religion,coat,costume,dress,fashion,jewel,dinner,feast,fry,roast,supper,toast,customer,money,price,art,college,music,poet,prose,story,study ⏹Latin: admit,client,conviction,discuss,equal,index,library,medicine,minor ⏹Greek: catastrophe,cosmos,criterion,idiosyncrasy ⏹SpanishandPortuguese: banana,barbecue,cafeteria,cargo,chocolate,cigar,cocaine,cockroach,cocoa,guitar,mosquito,negro,potato,tank,tobacco,tomato,vanilla ⏹Italian: aria,bandit,broccoli,casino,concerto,duet,finale,influenza,mafia,malaria,paparazzi(singularpaparazzo),piano,pizza,solo,soprano,spaghetti,studio,umbrella,volcano ⏹Dutch: boss,brandy,cookie,cruise,deck,dock,dollar,freight,gin,kit,knapsack,landscape,luck,sketch,slim,smuggle,snap,trek,yacht ⏹Arabic: admiral,alchemy,alcohol,algebra,alkali,almanac,assassin,candy,hazard,lemon,magazine,safari,sofa,zero ⏹Indian: bungalow,cashmere,curry,ginger,jungle,mango,polo,pyjamas(orpajamas),shampoo,swastika,thug,yoga ⏹Chinese: chopsuey,chow,chowmein,ginseng,gung-ho,ketchup(orcatchuporcatsup),kungfu,tea,tofu(viaJapanese),typhoo
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