托福阅读真题.docx
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托福阅读真题.docx
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托福阅读真题
2014年7月12日托福阅读真题
智课网整理
机经词汇:
initiatev开始、发动
fluctuatev波动
outlyingv/adj放在…之上;边远的
domesticadj国内的;驯养的
posterityn子孙;后羿
furtherv推动
durableadj持久的;耐用的
impedev妨碍
exclusiveadj专属的;排外的
definev定义;规定
inhibitv抑制;禁止
第一篇:
中美洲文明的发展史(thecultureofMesoamerica)
版本1:
关于mesoamerican的发现,出现了中美洲的各种文明(提别是maya文明),提到了金字塔地下的发现,后来强调了旅游景点也有大量可发现的价值。
版本2:
美国原始历史,提到玛雅文明,埃及金字塔,然后继续主题
解析:
历史起源类主题的文章可谓是老少咸宜的文章。
这一类文章通常段落结构清晰,主题明确,对背景的描述会比较详尽,不会出现因为背景知识的生疏而严重影响对于文章理解的情况。
需要注意的是,必须提前对相关类型的TPO文章的生词熟悉,尽量减少生词恐惧带来的内耗。
推荐TPO8的文章TheRiseofTeotihucan与TPO26的SumerandtheFirstCitiesoftheAncientNearEast。
相关背景:
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica isa region and culturalarea inthe Americas,extendingapproximatelyfromcentral Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, ElSalvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,andnorthern CostaRica,withinwhichanumberof pre-Columbiansocieties flourishedbeforetheSpanishcolonizationoftheAmericas inthe15thand16thcenturies.[1][2] Itisoneofsixareasintheworldwhereancientcivilizationaroseindependently,andthesecondintheAmericasafter NorteChico (Caral-Supe)inpresent-daynortherncoastalPeru.
Asaculturalarea,Mesoamericaisdefinedbyamosaicofculturaltraitsdevelopedandsharedbyitsindigenouscultures.Beginningasearlyas7000BC,thedomesticationof maize, beans, squash and chili,aswellasthe turkey and dog,causedatransitionfrom paleo-Indian hunter-gatherertribalgroupingtotheorganizationofsedentaryagriculturalvillages.Inthesubsequentformativeperiod,agricultureandculturaltraitssuchasacomplex mythologicalandreligioustradition,a vigesimalnumericsystem,anda complexcalendricsystem,a traditionofballplaying,andadistinct architecturalstyle,werediffusedthroughthearea.Alsointhisperiod,villagesbegantobecomesociallystratifiedanddevelopinto chiefdoms withthedevelopmentoflargeceremonialcenters,interconnectedbyanetworkoftraderoutesfortheexchangeofluxurygoods,suchas obsidian, jade,cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite,andceramics.WhileMesoamericancivilizationdidknowofthewheelandbasicmetallurgy,neitherofthesetechnologiesbecameculturallyimportant.[3]
Amongtheearliestcomplexcivilizationswasthe Olmec culture,whichinhabitedtheGulfcoastofMexicoandextendedinlandandsouthwardsacrossthe IsthmusofTehuantepec.FrequentcontactandculturalinterchangebetweentheearlyOlmecandotherculturesinChiapas,GuatemalaandOaxacalaidthebasisfortheMesoamericanculturalarea.Thisformativeperiodsawthespreadofdistinctreligiousandsymbolictraditions,aswellasartisticandarchitecturalcomplexes.Inthesubsequent Preclassicperiod,complexurbanpolitiesbegantodevelopamongthe Maya,withtheriseofcenterssuchas ElMirador, Calakmul and Tikal,andtheZapotec at MonteAlbán.Duringthisperiod,thefirsttrue Mesoamericanwritingsystems weredevelopedinthe Epi-Olmec andtheZapoteccultures,andtheMesoamericanwritingtraditionreacheditsheightintheClassic MayaHieroglyphicscript.
Mesoamericaisoneofonlyfiveregionsoftheworldwherewritingwasindependentlydeveloped.InCentralMexico,theheightoftheClassicperiodsawtheascendancyofthecityof Teotihuacan,whichformedamilitaryandcommercialempirewhosepoliticalinfluencestretchedsouthintotheMayaareaandnorthward.UponthecollapseofTeotihuacánaroundAD600,competitionbetweenseveralimportantpoliticalcentersincentralMexico,suchas Xochicalco and Cholula,ensued.AtthistimeduringtheEpi-Classicperiod,the Nahuapeoples beganmovingsouthintoMesoamericafromtheNorth,andbecamepoliticallyandculturallydominantincentralMexico,astheydisplacedspeakersof Oto-Mangueanlanguages.Duringtheearlypost-Classicperiod,CentralMexicowasdominatedbythe Toltec culture,Oaxacabythe Mixtec,andthelowlandMayaareahadimportantcentersat ChichénItzá and Mayapán.Towardstheendofthepost-Classicperiod,the Aztecs ofCentralMexicobuilta tributary empirecoveringmostofcentralMesoamerica.[4]
ThedistinctMesoamericanculturaltraditionendedwiththe Spanishconquest inthe16thcentury.Overthenextcenturies,MesoamericanindigenousculturesweregraduallysubjectedtoSpanishcolonialrule.AspectsoftheMesoamericanculturalheritagestillsurviveamongtheindigenouspeopleswhoinhabitMesoamerica,manyofwhomcontinuetospeaktheirancestrallanguages,andmaintainmanypracticesharkingbacktotheirMesoamericanroots.[5]
Paleo-Indian[edit]
TheMesoamericanPaleo-Indianperiodprecedestheadventofagricultureandischaracterizedbyanomadic huntingandgathering subsistencestrategy.Big-gamehunting,similartothatseenincontemporaneous NorthAmerica,wasalargecomponentofthesubsistencestrategyoftheMesoamericanPaleo-Indian.EvidenceforthistimeperiodinMesoamericaissparseandthedocumentedsitesscatteredc.10,500BC.Theseinclude Chivacabé, LosTapiales,and PuertaParada inthehighlandsofGuatemala, OrangeWalkinBelize,andtheElGigantecaveinHonduras.[citationneeded] Theselattersiteshadanumberof obsidian bladesand Clovis-stylefluted projectilepoints.Fishtailpoints,themostcommonstylein SouthAmerica,wererecoveredfromPuertaParada,datedtoc.10,000BC,aswellasothersitesincluding LosGrifos cavein Chiapas (c.8500BC)and Iztapan (c.7700–7300BC),a mammoth killsitelocatedintheValleyofMexiconear Texcoco.[citationneeded]
Archaic[edit]
TheArchaicperiod(8000–2000BC)ischaracterizedbytheriseof incipientagriculture inMesoamerica.TheinitialphasesoftheArchaicinvolvedthecultivationofwildplants,transitioningintoinformaldomesticationandculminatingwith sedentism andagriculturalproductionbythecloseoftheperiod.Archaicsitesinclude Sipacate inEscuintla,Guatemala,wheremaize pollensamples datetoc.3500BC.[13] Thewell-known Coxcatlancave siteintheValleyof Tehuacán, Puebla,whichcontainsover10,000teosinte cobs(anantecedentto maize),and GuiláNaquitz inOaxacarepresentsomeoftheearliestexamplesofagricultureinMesoamerica.Theearlydevelopmentofpottery,oftenseenasasignofsedentism,hasbeendocumentedatanumberofsites,includingtheWestMexicansitesof Matanchén in Nayarit andPuertoMarquésinGuerrero. LaBlanca, Ocós,and Ujuxte inthe PacificLowlands of Guatemala yieldedpotterydatedtoc.2500BC.[citationneeded]
Classic[edit]
EarlyClassic[edit]
TheClassicperiodismarkedbytheriseanddominanceofseveralpolities.ThetraditionaldistinctionbetweentheEarlyandLateClassicaremarkedbytheirchangingfortuneandtheirabilitytomaintainregionalprimacy.OfparamountimportanceareTeotihuacánincentralMexicoand Tikal inGuatemala;theEarlyClassic’stemporallimitsgenerallycorrelatetothemainperiodsofthesesites.MonteAlbaninOaxacaisanotherClassic-periodpolitythatexpandedandflourishedduringthisperiod,buttheZapoteccapitalexertedlessinterregionalinfluencethantheothertwosites.
DuringtheEarlyClassic,Teotihuacanparticipatedinandperhapsdominatedafar-reachingmacro-regionalinteractionnetwork.Architecturalandartifactstyles(talud-tablero,tripodslab-footedceramicvessels)epitomizedatTeotihuacanweremimickedandadoptedatmanydistantsettlements. Pachuca obsidian,whosetradeanddistributionisarguedtohavebeeneconomicallycontrolledbyTeotihuacan,isfoundthroughoutMesoamerica.
TikalcametodominatemuchofthesouthernMayalowlandspolitically,economically,andmilitarilyduringtheEarlyClassic.AnexchangenetworkcenteredatTikaldistributedavarietyofgoodsandcommoditiesthroughoutsoutheastMesoamerica,suchasobsidianimportedfromcentralMexico(e.g.,Pachuca)andhighlandGuatemala(e.g., ElChayal,whichwaspredominantlyusedbytheMayaduringtheEarlyClassic),and jade fromthe Motaguavalley inGuatemala.CarvedinscriptionsatthesiteattesttodirectinteractionwithindividualsadornedinTeotihuacan-styleddressc.AD400.[citationneeded] However,Tikalwasofteninconflictwithotherpolitiesinthe PeténBasin,aswellaswithothersoutsideofit,including Uaxactun, Caracol, DosPilas, Naranjo,and Calakmul.TowardstheendoftheEarlyClassic,thisconflictleadtoTikal’smilitarydefeatatthehandsofCaracolin562,andaperiodcommonlyknownasthe TikalHiatus.
LateClassic[edit]
TheLateClassicperiod(beginningca.AD600untilAD909[varies])ischaracterizedasaperiodofinterregionalcompetitionandfactionalizationamongthenumerousregionalpolitiesintheMayaarea.ThislargelyresultedfromthedecreaseinTikal’ssocio-politicalandeconomicpoweratthebeginningoftheperiod.Itwasthereforeduringthistimethatanumberofothersitesrosetoregionalprominenceandwereabletoexertgreaterinterregionalinfluence,includingCaracol, Copán, Palenque,andCalakmul(whichwasalliedwithCaracolandmayhaveassistedinthedefeatofTikal),and DosPilas Aguateca and Cancuén inthe Petexbatún regionofGuatemala.Around710,Tikalaroseagainandstartedtobuildstrongalliancesanddefeatitsworstenemies.IntheMayaarea,theLateClassicendedwiththeso-called"Mayacollapse",atransitionalperiodcouplingthegeneraldepopulationofthesouthernlowlandsanddevelopmentandflorescenceofcentersinthenorthernlowlands.
SomeMesoamericanculturesneverachieveddominantstatusorleftimpressivearcheologicalremainsbutshouldbementionedasnoteworthy.Theseincludethe Otomi, Mixe–Zoque groups(whichmayormaynothavebeenrelatedtotheOlmecs),thenorthern Uto-aztecan groups,oftenreferredtoasthe Chichimeca,thatincludethe Cora andHuichol,theChontales,theHuaves,andt
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