托福阅读真题.docx
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托福阅读真题.docx
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托福阅读真题
2015年1月10日托福阅读真题
2015年1月10日托福考试三篇阅读文章整体难度不大,文章结构清晰,在TPO中也有很多类似的文章出现,所以考生平时一定要多刷题,多积累。
第一篇:
疾病的三个历史阶段
主要内容:
第一个传染阶段,主要是由于医疗差,人口发展,开始农业,人与人,以及动物之间的接触越来越多,疾病开始大规模的传染。
第二,医疗得以发展,传染病被克服,但是由于经济的发展,生活水平不断上升,慢性病开始占据主导地位,比如心脏病,肺结核等。
第三,到了现代社会,传染病重新出现,慢性病也没有被克服,细菌产生了抗力,很多以前没有出现的疾病开始出现了。
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TPO16:
DevelopmentofThePeriodicTable
背景资料:
Onlysomediseasessuchasinfluenzaarecontagiousandcommonlybelievedinfectious.Themicro-organismsthatcausethesediseasesareknownaspathogensandincludevarietiesofbacteria,viruses,protozoaandfungi.Infectiousdiseasescanbetransmitted,e.g.byhand-to-mouthcontactwithinfectiousmaterialonsurfaces,bybitesofinsectsorothercarriersofthedisease,andfromcontaminatedwaterorfood(oftenviafecalcontamination),etc.Inaddition,therearesexuallytransmitteddiseases.Insomecases,microorganismsthatarenotreadilyspreadfrompersontopersonplayarole,whileotherdiseasescanbepreventedoramelioratedwithappropriatenutritionorotherlifestylechanges.Somediseases,suchasmost(butnotall)formsofcancer,heartdisease,andmentaldisorders,arenon-infectiousdiseases.Manynon-infectiousdiseaseshaveapartlyorcompletelygeneticbasis(seegeneticdisorder)andmaythusbetransmittedfromonegenerationtoanother.Socialdeterminantsofhealtharethesocialconditionsinwhichpeoplelivethatdeterminetheirhealth.Illnessesaregenerallyrelatedtosocial,economic,political,andenvironmentalcircumstances.SocialdeterminantsofhealthhavebeenrecognizedbyseveralhealthorganizationssuchasthePublicHealthAgencyofCanadaandtheWorldHealthOrganizationtogreatlyinfluencecollectiveandpersonalwell-being.TheWorldHealthOrganization'sSocialDeterminantsCouncilalsorecognizesSocialdeterminantsofhealthinpoverty.Whenthecauseofadiseaseispoorlyunderstood,societiestendtomythologizethediseaseoruseitasametaphororsymbolofwhateverthatcultureconsidersevil.Forexample,untilthebacterialcauseoftuberculosiswasdiscoveredin1882,expertsvariouslyascribedthediseasetoheredity,asedentarylifestyle,depressedmood,andoverindulgenceinsex,richfood,oralcohol—allthesocialillsofthetime.
Diseaseburdenistheimpactofahealthprobleminanareameasuredbyfinancialcost,mortality,morbidity,orotherindicators.Thereareseveralmeasuresusedtoquantifytheburdenimposedbydiseasesonpeople.Theyearsofpotentiallifelost(YPLL)isasimpleestimateofthenumberofyearsthataperson'slifewasshortenedduetoadisease.Forexample,ifapersondiesattheageof65fromadisease,andwouldprobablyhaveliveduntilage80withoutthatdisease,thenthatdiseasehascausedalossof15yearsofpotentiallife.YPLLmeasurementsdonotaccountforhowdisabledapersonisbeforedying,sothemeasurementtreatsapersonwhodiessuddenlyandapersonwhodiedatthesameageafterdecadesofillnessasequivalent.In2004,theWorldHealthOrganizationcalculatedthat932millionyearsofpotentiallifewerelosttoprematuredeath.Thequality-adjustedlifeyear(QALY)anddisability-adjustedlifeyear(DALY)metricsaresimilar,buttakeintoaccountwhetherthepersonwashealthyafterdiagnosis.Inadditiontothenumberofyearslostduetoprematuredeath,thesemeasurementsaddpartoftheyearslosttobeingsick.UnlikeYPLL,thesemeasurementsshowtheburdenimposedonpeoplewhoareverysick,butwholiveanormallifespan.Adiseasethathashighmorbidity,butlowmortality,hasahighDALYandalowYPLL.In2004,theWorldHealthOrganizationcalculatedthat1.5billiondisability-adjustedlifeyearswerelosttodiseaseandinjury.Inthedevelopedworld,heartdiseaseandstrokecausethemostlossoflife,butneuropsychiatricconditionslikemajordepressivedisordercausethemostyearslosttobeingsick.
第二篇:
手工工艺的衰落
主要内容:
16世纪,artisans的繁荣发展被削弱,一些技术的发展使得成本上升,手工艺人无法承担,原料的买卖大权掌握在大商人手中,穷的手工艺人只能依靠便宜的当地材料,很多独立的生产者沦落为大商人的employee。
同时他们又担心乡下地区的发展,因为那里成本消费更低,更好招人。
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TPO25:
TheDeclineofVenetianShipping
背景补充:
Before1815manufacturingintheUnitedStateshadbeendoneinhomesorshopsbyskilledartisans.Asmastercraftworkers,theyimpartedtheknowledgeoftheirtradestoapprenticesandjourneymen.Inaddition,womenoftenworkedintheirhomespart-time,makingfinishedarticlesfromrawmaterialsuppliedbymerchantcapitalists.After1815thisolderformofmanufacturingbegantogivewaytofactorieswithmachinerytendedbyunskilledorsemiskilledlaborers.Cheaptransportationnetworks,theriseofcities,andtheavailabilityofcapitalandcreditallstimulatedtheshifttofactoryproduction.
Thecreationofalaborforcethatwasaccustomedtoworkinginfactoriesdidnotoccureasily.Beforetheriseofthefactory,artisanshadworkedwithinthehome.Apprenticeswereconsideredpartofthefamily,andmasterswereresponsiblenotonlyforteachingtheirapprenticesatradebutalsoforprovidingthemsomeeducationandforsupervisingtheirmoralbehavior.Journeymenknewthatiftheyperfectedtheirskill,theycouldbecomerespectedmasterartisanswiththeirownshops.Also,skilledartisansdidnotworkbytheclock,atasteadypace,butratherinburstsofintenselaboralternatingwithmoreleisurelytime.
Thefactorychangedthat.Goodsproducedbyfactorieswerenotasfinishedorelegantasthosedonebyhand,andprideincraftsmanshipgavewaytothepressuretoincreaseratesofproductivity.Thenewmethodsofdoingbusinessinvolvedanewandstrictersenseoftime.Factorylifenecessitatedamoreregimentedschedule,whereworkbeganatthesoundofabellandworkerskeptmachinesgoingataconstantpace.Atthesametime,workerswererequiredtodiscardoldhabits,forindustrialismdemandedaworkerwhowasalert,dependable,andself-disciplined.Absenteeismandlatenesshurtproductivityand,sinceworkwasspecialized,disruptedtheregularfactoryroutine.Industrializationnotonlyproducedafundamentalchangeinthewayworkwasorganized;ittransformedtheverynatureofwork.
Thefirstgenerationtoexperiencethesechangesdidnotadoptthenewattitudeseasily.Thefactoryclockbecamethesymbolofthenewworkrules.Onemillworkerwhofinallyquitcomplainedrevealinglyabout"obediencetotheding-dongofthebell-justasthoughwearesomanylivingmachines."Withthelossofpersonalfreedomalsocamethelossofstandinginthecommunity.Unlikeartisanworkshopsinwhichapprenticesworkedcloselywiththemasterssupervisingthem,factoriessharplyseparatedworkersfrommanagement.Fewworkersrosethroughtherankstosupervisorypositions,andevenfewercouldachievetheartisan'sdreamofsettingupone'sownbusiness.Evenwell-paidworkerssensedtheirdeclineinstatus.
Inthisnewlyemergingeconomicorder,workerssometimesorganizedtoprotecttheirrightsandtraditionalwaysoflife.Craftworkerssuchascarpenters,printers,andtailorsformedunions,andin1834individualunionscametogetherintheNationalTrades'Union.ThelabormovementgatheredsomemomentuminthedecadebeforethePanicof1837,butinthedepressionthatfollowed,labor'sstrengthcollapsed.Duringhardtimes,fewworkerswerewillingtostrike*orengageincollectiveaction.Andskilledcraftworkers,whospearheadedtheunionmovement,didnotfeelaparticularlystrongbondwithsemiskilledfactoryworkersandunskilledlaborers.Morethanadecadeofagitationdidfinallybringaworkdayshortenedto10hourstomostindustriesbythe1850’s,andthecourtsalsorecognizedworkers'righttostrike,butthesegainshadlittleimmediateimpact.
Workerswereunitedinresentingtheindustrialsystemandtheirlossofstatus,buttheyweredividedbyethnicandracialantagonisms,gender,conflictingreligiousperspectives,occupationaldifferences,politicalpartyloyalties,anddisagreementsovertactics.Forthem,thefactoryandindustrialismwerenotagentsofopportunitybutremindersoftheirlossofindependenceandameasureofcontrolovertheirlives.AsUnitedStatessocietybecamemorespecializedanddifferentiated,greaterextremesofwealthbegantoappear.Andasthenewmarketscreatedfortunesforthefew,thefactorysystemloweredthewagesofworkersbydividinglaborintosmaller,lessskilledtasks.
第三篇:
大气中的氧气含量
主要内容:
大气中最初是没有氧气的,因为光合作用和火山爆发而慢慢变化,水蒸气产生大量氧气,然后开始出现了生物。
通过和太阳比较,现在空气中比以前少了些元素,氧气的产生过程中,水分解放出氧,植物进行转化。
研究发现氧先和铁结合进入海洋,因为两个时间点的石头构成不同,生物爆发正好与后一个时间点重合,氧气含量还与decompose有关。
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TPO10:
VariationsinTheClimate
背景补充:
Oxygenisanimportantpartoftheatmosphere,andisnecessarytosustainmostterrestriallifeasitisusedinrespiration.However,itistoochemicallyreactivetoremainafreeelementinEarth'satmospherewithoutbeingcontinuouslyreplenishedbythephotosyntheticactionoflivingorganisms,whichusetheenergyofsunlighttoproduceelementaloxygenfromwater.Anotherform(allotrope)ofoxygen,ozone(O3),stronglyabsorbsUVBradiationandconsequentlythehigh-altitudeozonelayerhelpsprotectthebiospherefromultravioletradiation,butisapollutantnearthesurfacewhereitisaby-productofsmog.Atevenhigherlowearthorbitaltitudes,atomicoxygenisasignificantpresenceandacauseoferosionforspacecraft.Oxygenisproducedindustriallybyfractionaldistillationofliquefiedair,useofzeoliteswithpressure-cyclingtoconcentrateoxygenfromair,electrolysisofwaterandothermeans.Usesofelementaloxygenincludetheproductionofsteel,plasticsandtextiles,brazing,weldingandcuttingofsteelsandothermetals,rocketpropellant,oxygentherapyandlifesupportsystemsinaircraft,submarines,spaceflightanddiving.
FreeoxygengaswasalmostnonexistentinEarth'satmospherebeforephotosyntheticarchaeaandbacter
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