欧洲文化复习终结版.docx
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欧洲文化复习终结版.docx
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欧洲文化复习终结版
欧洲文化复习终结版
1FourcontendingschoolsofThought
Inthe4thcenturyB.C,therewerefourcontendingschoolsofphilosophersarguingwitheachother.Theywereasfollows:
1Cynics:
theCynicsgottheirnamesbecauseDiogenes,oneoftheirleaders,decidedtolivelikeadogandtheword“Cynic”means“dog”inGreek.Diogeneslivedbybegging;herejectedallconventionsandadvocatedself-sufficientandextremesimplicityinlife.Heproclaimedhisbrotherhood,notonlywiththewholehumanrace,butalsowithanimals.Andhehasnopatientwiththerichandpowerful.
ThefirstandmostdirectCynicinfluenceisuponthefoundingofStoicism.Withinpoliticalphilosophy,theCynicscanbeseenasoriginatorsofanarchism.TheimpactofCynicismisalsofeltinChristian,Medieval,andRenaissancethough.Finally,themarkoftheCynicisfoundthroughoutthetextsofliteratureandphilosophy.
2.TheSceptics:
theScepticsfollowedPyrrhon,whoheldthatnotallknowledgewasattainable.Heandhisfollowersdoubtedthetruthofwhatothersacceptedastrue.
Thespiritofdoubtinfluencemanylaterphilosophersandsictists,whichencouragethemtobecreativity,andpushestheflourishofthediversity
3.TheEpicureans:
theEpicureansweredispelsofEpicurus.Hewasamaterialistwhobelievedpleasuretobethehighestgoalinlife.Butbypleasure,hemeant,notsensualenjoyment,butfreedomfrompainandemotionalupheaval.Thishethoughtcouldbeattainedbythepracticeofvirtue.
Histeachingwasmisunderstoodbylaterpeopleandtheword”Epicurean”hascometomeanindulgenceinluxuriousliving.
4.TheStoics:
themostimportantthingfortheStoicswasnot“pleasure”,but“duty”.Thisdevelopedintothetheorythatoneshouldendurehardshipandmisfortunewithcourage.TherepresentativewasZeno.Hewasamaterialist,assertingtheexistenceoftherealworld.Hebelievednosuchthingaschance,andthatthecourseofnatureisrigidlydeterminedbynaturallaw.Inthelifeofanindividualman,virtueisthesolegoodanditresidesinthewill.
TheStoicphilosophyhaditsbiggestimpactonlaw,ethicsandpoliticalsciencethroughouttheworldandhistory.Italsocontributedmanysignificanttheoriesonknowledge,logicandnaturalphilosophy.
2Christianity
Itoriginatedinthe1stcentury,andfirmeditsrootsinthesecondcentury,waswidespreadinthethirdcentury,andbecametheofficialreligionofRomanEmpireinthe392AD.Inthefifthcentury,ChristianitywasquitepopularandChristianchurchwaswidespreadinthelatemiddleages.Themiddleageiscalled“theAgeofFaith”.Untilnow,Christianityisstillpopularinthewestworld.
ItwasfoundedbyJesus.Hetaughtthatmanshouldbelieveingodandloveeachotherasgod’schildren.Afterhedied,stpeterandstPaulbegantopreachintheMediterraneanregion.SaintPaultransformedaJewishsectintoanewreligionbuiltonthepersonalismanduniversalismimplicitintoteachingsofJesusforhumanity.
ItsteachingisthatChristiansshouldbelievethateverymanissin.TheyareallGod’schildrenandshouldsharebrotherlylove.GodhavebecomehumanandthesaviorofhumanityandJesusistheSonofGod.Hewassenttotheearthtosuffertosaveallthepeople.HewillsendinformationtopeoplewhicharecalledtheGospel.PeoplecancommunicatewithgodthroughJesusorreadingbible.
Christianityhasitsownappeal.
1TheChristianmessageofadivinesavior,aconcernedfather,andbrotherlyloveattractsmanypeople.
2ChristianityofferspeoplewhattheRomanEmpirecouldnot:
anintenselypersonalrelationshipwithgod,anintimateconnectionwithahigherworld,andmembershipinacommunityofthefaithful,
3Itstressestheintellectandself-reliance.Thepoor,theoppressed,andtheslaveswereattractedtothepersonality,death,andresurrectionofJesus,hisloveforall,andhisconcernforthesufferinghumanity.
Ithas5mainimpacts:
1.Christianityestablishedthebasicvalueofthewestworld.2.1tlaythefoundationofthewesternsystemofeducationandpolitic,especiallythedemocracypolitics.3ittransmitthetraditionalcultureandhelpedcultivatednewcivilization4ithelpseachofthewesternregionscommunicateandinteractwitheachother.5.ChristianityhasagreateffectonWesterncultureinliterature,music,architecture,paintingandscripture,whichcontributestothedevelopmentofwesternculturalrevivalandlaysthefoundationofRenaissanceinEurope.
3.Feudalism
FeudalisminEuropewasmainlyasystemoflandholding---asystemofholdinglandinexchangeformilitaryservice.Theword“feudalism”wasderivedfromtheLatin“feudum”,agrantofland.ItflourishedbetweentheninthandfifteenthcenturiesandCrusadeshelpedtobreakdownit.Itwasalsoasystemofgovernment---aformoflocalanddecentralizedgovernment.
Feudalismwasacomplicatedsystemofgovernment.TheKinggrantedtherighttogovernlargesectionsoflandasfiefstogreatlords,theselordsknownasvesselsinturnpromisedtofightfortheKing.Andtheythemselvesfurthergrantedpartsoftheirfiefstolesservassals.
Thecentreofmedievallifeunderfeudalismwasthemanor.Theywerefoundedonthefiefsoflords.Everythingneededtolivewassuppliedonthemanors.Itwasself-sufficient.Bythe12thcentury,theycametobecalledcastles.Atthecentreofthemanorstoodthechurch,whichwasverypopularandhadagreatandpowerfulinfluenceonthefeudalsociety.
Almostallnobleswereknightsinthemedievaldays.Butnoonewasbornaknight---knighthoodhadtobeearnedandthetrainingwaslongandhard.Asaknight,hewaspledgedtoprotecttheweek,tofightforthechurch,tobeloyaltohislordandtorespectwomenofnoblebirth,thiswasknownascodeofchivalry.
Charlegnewasthemostimportantfigureinthisperiod.HekeptorderthroughouthisrealmandencouragedinterestintheChristianreligionandancientlearning.Theresultofhiseffortswascalled“CarolingianRenaissance”.
AlfredtheGreat,rulerofWessex,contributedgreatlytothemedievalEuropeanculture.Heintroducedteachersandscholars,foundnewmonasteries,promotedtranslationsintothevernacularfromLatinworksandinspiredthecompilationofAnglo-SaxonChronicles.
FeudalismplayedamajorroleinthereorganizationofmedievalEurope.Itaffectedpolitical,social,religious,andeconomicalaspectsofthemiddleAges.Duringthisperiod,experimentalsciencecameintobeingandartandarchitectureflourished.OldEnglish,insteadofLatinlanguagebecamepopularinEurope.FromEuropeanfeudalismemergeddifferentformsofconstitutionalgovernment.Butitbroughtabouttheclassstructuresthatpersisteddespitetheriseoftheburgesses(burghers,bourgeoisie)untilwellintothe20thcentury.
4.Renaissance
Itreferstotheperiodbetween14thand17thcentury.Therenaissancemeansrevival,revivalofinterestinanancientGreekandRomanculture.Inessence,itwasahistoricalperiodinwhichtheEuropeanhumanistthinkersandscholarsattemptedtogetridofconservatisminfeudalistEuropeandintroducenewideasthatexpressedtheinterestsoftherisingbourgeoisie.
TherearethreecharacteristicsofRenaissance.Theyarehumanism,SecularityandIndividualism.
Humanismreferstopeople’sthoughtscentersonhumanbeingsandtheirvalues,capacities,andworthinsteadofgod.Peopleweretaughtnotonlyknowledgebutalsohowtocommunicateone’sknowledgeandhowtouseit.Inacademicarea,themostfamousandinfluentialhumanistwereSirThomasandWilliamShakespeare.
Peoplepursuedsecularityatthattime.Theypaidmoreattentiononthesecularhappinessandbecamemorerationalandpragmaticratherthanreliedonthechurchforcomfort.
Individualismisanotherfeatureofrenaissance.Peoplebegantopayattentiononself-consciousnessandself-independenceandsoughtpersonaldevelopmentandpersonalinterests.
TherenaissancestartedinFlorenceandVeniceinItaly.AndspreadtoGermany,France,EnglandandSpaininthelate15thcentury.
Itwasaperiodduringwhichart,architecture,andliteratureflourished.TherearethreegreatartistsinhighrenaissancetheyareLeonardodaVinci,whosemasterpieceistheLastSupper,MichelangeloBuonanrrotiwithhisStatueofDavid,andRaphaelSantiwithhistheAlbaMadonna.ShakespearewasthemostfamousfigureofEnglishrenaissance.Hehasmanyfamousworkssuchas4tragedies.
TheRenaissancecreatedaculturewhichfreedmantodiscoverandenjoytheworldinawaynotpossibleunderthemedievalchurch’scontrol.Therenaissancemarksthebirthofmodernity.Anditbringsanewviewofhumannature.Italsobooststheflourishoftheliterature,artarchitecture,whichhasleftmanypreciousculturalheritagestous.
5.Reformation
Itwasa16thcenturyreligiousmovementaswellasasocial-politicalmovement.ItsweptoverthewholeEuropeandwasaimedatopposingtheabsoluteauthorityoftheRomanCatholicChurchandreplacingitwiththeauthorityoftheBible.
MartinLutherwastheimportantleaderofthereformation.ThestartingpointwasLuther’sattackin1517onthechurch’spracticeofsellingindulgences.ThefollowerswerecalledProtestants.HetranslatedtheBiblethathethoughtwasthesupremeauthorityandmanwastheonlyboundtotheGod’swordsnottheclergy’s.Hewasalsoafighterfordemocracyandnationalism,ahumanistwhohelpedbuildaneducationalsystemandhisGermantranslationofbiblehelpedfixedthestandardofthemodernGerman.
AnotherinfluentialfigurewastheEnglishking,Henry8,whoestablishedtheChurchofEnglandwiththekingratherthanthePopeasthehead.
Thereformationhasgreatinf
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