转 语言学7名词解释doc.docx
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转语言学7名词解释doc
转语言学7名词解释
1.80.Whatisanalphabet?
Whatisasyllabary?
An"alphabet"referstothelettersorsignsrepresentingspeechsoundsusedinwritingalanguage,arrangedinaconventionalorder.A"syllabary"referstoasetortableorsystemofwrittencharactersrepresentingsyllablesratherthanindividualsounds.
1.81.Whatisagrapheme?
Whatisorthography?
(1)A"grapheme"istheminimalconstructiveunitinthewritingsystemofalanguage.TheEnglishgraphemeAisrepresentedbyA,α,aetc.
(2)Orthographymeanscorrectspelling,spellingrulesorattemptstoimprovespelling.
1.82.Whatisreference?
"Reference",asfaraswritingisconcerned,meansthatinasoundwritingsystemthegraphemesandthephonemesareexpectedtobuildupandtokeepupco-reference.Forinstance,theReferenceoftheEnglishgraphemeBgenerallyis"b"andthatofthegraphemeXis"ks".Theproblemwithreferenceisthatmorethanonephonemecanberepresentedbyonesingleletterorgrapheme.ThegraphemeO,forexample,canrepresentitsitsdifferentcorrespondingphonemesasin:
so,money,together,sob.
Forreferenceusedinthesenseof"sense"or"meaning",placereferbackto1.64.
1.83.Whatisaffixation,conversionandcompounding?
(1)"Affixation"isthemorphologicalprocesswherebygrammaticaloflexicalinformationisaddedtothebase(rootorstem).Ithasbeentheoldestandthemostproductiveword-formationmethodintheEnglishlanguageandsomeotherEuropeanlanguages."Prefixation"meansadditionofaprefixtomakeanewword,while"suffixation"meansaddingasuffixtoaword.Theword"unfaithful"isresultofbothprefixationandsuffixation.
(2)"Conversion"(calledsometimes"fullconversion")isaword-formationprocessbywhichawordisalteredfromonepartofspeechintoanotherwithouttheaddition(ordeletion)ofanymorpheme."Partialconversion"isalsoalterationwhenawordofoneword-classappearsinafunctionwhichischaracteristicofanotherword-class,e.g.,"thewealthy"(=wealthypeople).
(3)"Compounding"issocomplexaword-formationprocessasfarasEnglishisconcernedthatthereisnoformalcriterionthatcanbeusedforthedefinitionofit,thoughitmaymeansimplythattwowordsormorecometogetherusedasonelexicalitem,like"dustbin".
1.84.Whatisblending,abbreviationandbackformation?
(1)"Blending"isarelativelycomplexformofcompoundinginwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots,e.g.,smog→smoke+fog,boatel→boat+hotel,etc.
(2)"Abbreviation",alsocalledinsomecases"clipping",meansthatawordthatseemsunnecessarilylongisshortened,usuallybyclippingeitherthefrontorthebackpartofit,e.g.,telephone→phone,professor→prof.,etc.
Broadlyspeaking,abbreviationincludesacronymsthataremadeupfromthefirstlettersofthelongnameofanorganization,e.g.,WorldBank→WB,EuropeanEconomicCommunity→EEC,etc.Otherexamplesofacronymscanbefoundwithterminologies,tobereadlikeoneword,e.g.,radiodetectingandranging→radar.TestofEnglishasaForeignLanguage→TOEFL,etc.
(3)"Back-formation"referstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydetectinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.Itisaspecialkindofmetanalyais,combinedwithanalogicalcreation(see1.85),e.g.,editor→edit,enthusiasm→enthuse,etc.
1.85.Whatisanalogicalcreation?
Whatisborrowing?
Theprocessof"analogicalcreation",asoneoftheEnglishtendenciesinEnglishword-formation,referstothephenomenonthatanewwordoranewphraseiscoinedbyanalogybetweenanewlycreatedoneandanexistingone.Forexample,"marathon"appearedattheFirstOlympicGamesandbyanalogymodernEnglishcreatedsuchwordsas"telethon","talkthon",etc.Analogymaycreatesinglewords(e.g.,sunrise-moonrise,earthrise,etc.;earthquake-starquake,youthquake,etc.)andphrases(e.g.,environmentalpollution-soundpollution,airpollution,culturalpollution,etc.).
"Borrowing"meanstheEnglishlanguageborrowedwordsfromforeignlanguages,whichfallinfourcategories:
aliens,denizens,translation-loansandsemanticborrowings.
"Aliens"areforeignloansthatstillkeeptheiralienshapes,i.e.,morphologicalandphonologicalfeatures,e.g.,"elite","coupdétat","coupé",etc.(fromFrench)."Deniens",alsoforeignwords,havetransformedtheirforeignappearance,i.e.,theyhavebeenAngolcized(orAmericanized),e.g.,"get"(aScandinavianborrowing),"theater"(aFrenchloan),etc."Hybrids"arealsodenizens,becausetheyarewordsmadeupoftwopartsbothfromforeignsoil,suchas"sociology"("socio-"fromFrenchand-logyfromGreek).
"Translation-loans"arewordsimportedbywayoftranslation,e.g.,"blackhumor"fromFrench("humornoir"),"foundobject"formFrench,too("objecttrouve"),etc.Finally,semanticborrowingshaveacquirednewmeaningundertheinfluenceoflanguageorlanguagesotherthanthesourcetongue.Forexample,"gift"mean"thepriceofawife"inOldEnglish(450-1150AD),andafterthesemanticborrowingofthemeaningof"giftorpresent"oftheScandinavianterm"gipt",itmeantandstillmeans"gift"inthemodernsenseofit.
1.86.Whatisassimilation,dissimilationandmetathesis?
"Assimilation"referstochangeofasoundastheresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichiscalled"contact"or"contiguous"assimilation.Theassimitativeprocessesatwordinlanguagecouldbeexplainedbythe"theoryofleasteffort",i.e.,inspeakingwetendtoexertaslittleeffortaspossiblesothatwedonotwanttovarytoooftenplacesofarticulationinutteringasequenceofsounds.Assimilationtakesplaceinquickspeechveryoften.Inexpressionssuchas"immobile","illegal",etc.,thenegativeprefixesshouldbeorhavebeen"in-"etymologically.
"Dissimilation",oppositeofassimilation,istheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanothersound,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalikethanexpected.AstherearetwosoundsintheLatinword"peregrines",forinstance,thefirstsegmenthadtodissimilateinto[l],hencetheEnglishword"pilgrim".
"Metathesis"isaprocessinvolvinganalterationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadoriginallybeenaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.Forinstance,theword"bird"was"bird"inOldEnglish.Theword"ask"usedtobepronounced[ask]inOldEnglish,asstilloccursinsomeEnglishdialects.
ByZhangZuchun2001/12/30
胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案
Annie@2005-05-0918:
19Definethefollowingterms:
1.designfeature:
arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.
2.function:
theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsinclucleimformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.
3.etic:
atermincontrastwithemicwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike'sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Beingeticmansmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,justaswasofterthecasewithphoneticvx.phonemicanalysisinlinguisticsproper.
4.emic:
atermincontrastwitheticwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike'sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunithratherthanviaqppealtotheinvestigator'singenuithorintuitionalone.
5.synchronic:
akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.
6.diachronic:
studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.
7.prescriptive:
thestudyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.
8.prescriptive:
akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.
9.descriptive:
akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.
10.arbitrariness:
onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefacethattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.
11.duality:
onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofarecomposedofelementsofthesecondary.levelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.
12.displacement:
onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.
13.phaticcommunion:
onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.
14.metalanguage:
certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.
15.macrolinguistics:
heinteractingstudybetweenlanguageandlanguage-relateddisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,scienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.Branchesofmacrolinguisticsincludepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,etpetence:
languageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.
17.performance:
theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.
18.langue:
thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.
19.parole:
theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).
20.Articulatoryphonetics:
thestudyofproductionofspeechsounds.
21.Coarticulation:
akindofphoneticprocessinwhichsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved.Coarticulationcanbefurtherdividedintoanticipatorycoarticulationandperseverativecoarticulation.
22.Voicing:
pronouncingasound(usuallyavoweloravoicedconsonant)byvibratingthevocalcords.
23.Broadandnarrowtranscript
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