EducationalPsychology.docx
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EducationalPsychology.docx
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EducationalPsychology
EnglishTeaching’sEffectonEducationalPsychology
Course:
PsychologyofLanguageTeacher
Instructor:
Major:
Class:
2
Grade:
3
Name:
Tommy
No.
EnglishTeaching’sEffectonEducationalPsychology
Abstract:
Psychologyisascience,andteachingisanart;andsciencesnevergenerateartsdirectlyoutofthemselves.Anintermediateinventivemindmustmakethatapplication,byusingitsoriginality.
Keywords:
educationalpsychology,methodology,Behavioralperspective,Cognitiveperspective,Constructivistperspective.
Introduction
Educationalpsychologydoesnotclaimpriorityinthesystematicanalysisofeducationalprocesses.PhilosophersofeducationsuchasDemocritus,Quintilian,Vives,andComenius,hadexamined,classified,andjudgedthemethodsofeducationcenturiesbeforethebeginningsofpsychologyinthelate1800s.Instead,aspirationsofthenewdisciplinerestedontheapplicationofthescientificmethodsofobservationandexperimentationtoeducationalquestions.
Evenintheearliestyearsofthediscipline,educationalpsychologistsrecognizedthelimitationsofthisnewapproach.InhisfamousseriesoflecturesTalkstoTeachersonPsychology,publishedin1899andnowregardedasthefirsteducationalpsychologytextbook,thepioneeringAmericanpsychologistWilliamJamescommentedthat:
Psychologyisascience,andteachingisanart;andsciencesnevergenerateartsdirectlyoutofthemselves.Anintermediateinventivemindmustmakethatapplication,byusingitsoriginality.
EdwardL.Thorndikedevelopedthetheoryofinstrumentalconditioningand,insodoing,createdthefoundationofeducationalpedagogy.Hismethodemphasizeduseofrepetition,useofrewardsandpunishments,andtheuseoftimeperiodbreaksbetweenteachingsimilarsubjects.ThoughThorndike'stheoryhasnotbeenpopularsincethe1960sintheUnitedStates,histhoughtpresagedlaterworkonprogrammedImasterylearning,andcomputerbasedlearning:
instruction.
If,byamiracleofmechanicalingenuity,abookcouldbesoarrangedthatonlytohimwhohaddonewhatwasdirectedonpageonewouldpagetwobecomevisible,andsoon,muchthatnowrequirespersonalinstructioncouldbemanagedbyprint.
Thorndike'sviewwassimilartoB.F.Skinner'soperantconditioningtheory.Commonassumptionsincludedthesimilaritiesbetweenhumanbeingsandanimalsregardinglearningfromstimulusandresponsemechanisms,andthenotionthatanewborninfantarrivesintolifewitha"blankslate."Theirbehavioristicideasformedthegenerallyacceptedfoundationoftheeducationalsciencefieldforfiftyyears.
Theoriesineducationalpsychology
Twofundamentalassumptionsthatunderlieformaleducationalsystems,agreedonbyalltheorists,arethatstudents(a)retainknowledgeandskillstheyacquireinschool,and(b)canapplytheminsituationsoutsidetheclassroom.Thereisconsiderableevidencethatthefirstassumptionisvalid.Evenwhenstudentsreportnotusingtheknowledgeacquiredinschool,aconsiderableportionisretainedformanyyears,andlongtermretentionisdependentontheinitiallevelofmastery.Thereislessconsensusonthecrucialquestionofhowmuchknowledgeacquiredinschooltransferstotasksencounteredoutsideformaleducationalsettings.Somearguethatevidenceforthistypeof"fartransfer"isscarce,haleothersclaimthereisabundantevidenceoffartransferinspecificdomains.SuchvariationwasinfactpredictedbyThorndike'searlyworkonlearning.Heobservedthattransferoflearningoccurswhenthereare"commonelements"inthetwodomains.Theidentificationofwhatconstitutethosecommonelements,however,hasbeendifficulttoachieve.
Beyondthesebasicassumptions,thereisanaturalvarianceofopinionamongtheoristsconcerningthebestapproachtousetoobtaindesiredoutcomes.Heateddebatehastakenplacebetweenthosethatadheretodifferentapproaches.ApproachestolearningcommonlyusedineducationalpsychologyincludeBehaviorism,Cognitivism,SocialCognitivism,andConstructivism.
Behavioralperspective
Appliedbehavioranalysis,asetoftechniquesbasedonthebehavioralprinciplesofoperantconditioning,hasbeenfoundeffectiveinarangeofeducationalsettings.Forexample,teacherscanimprovestudentbehaviorbysystematicallyrewardingstudentswhofollowclassroomruleswithpraise,stars,ortokensexchangeableforsundryitems.
Despitedemonstratedefficacyofrewardsinchangingbehavior,theiruseineducationhasbeencriticizedbyproponentsofself-determinationtheory,whoclaimthatpraiseandotherrewardsundermineintrinsicmotivation.Thereisevidencethattangiblerewardsdecreaseintrinsicmotivationinspecificsituations,suchaswhenthestudentalreadyhasahighlevelofintrinsicmotivationtoperformthegoalbehavior.Buttheresultsshowingdetrimentaleffectsarecounterbalancedbyevidencethat,inothersituations,suchaswhenrewardsaregivenforattainingagraduallyincreasingstandardofperformance,rewardsenhanceintrinsicmotivation.
Cognitiveperspective
Amongeducationalpsychologists,thecognitiveperspectiveismorewidelyheldthanthebehavioralperspective,perhapsbecauseitflexiblyadmitscausallyrelatedmentalconstructssuchastraits,beliefs,memories,motivations,andemotions.Cognitivetheoriespositmemorystructuresthatarethoughttodeterminehowinformationisperceived,processed,stored,retrieved,andforgotten.Cognitivepsychologiststheorizethatmemorystructuresareseparatebutlinkedtovisualandverbalsystems,inwayssuchasdescribedbyPavia’s"dualcodingtheory,"whichhasbeenusedtoexplainhowpeoplelearnfrommultimediapresentations.
ThreeexperimentsreportedbyKrug,DavisandGloverdemonstratedtheadvantageofdelayinga2ndreadingofatextpassagebyoneweek(distributed)comparedwithnodelaybetweenreadings(massed).
The"spacedlearning"effect,acognitivephenomenonstronglysupportedbypsychologicalresearch,hasbroadapplicabilitywithineducation.
Problemsolving,regardedbymanycognitivepsychologistsasfundamentaltolearning,isalsoanimportantresearchtopicineducationalpsychology.Researchersinthisareahavesuggestedthatpracticeinproblemsolvingestablishesconnectionsbetweenthetypeofproblemandtheappropriate"schema"forsolvingit.
Muchresearchactivityineducationalpsychologyhasfocusedondevelopingtheoriesofself-regulatedlearning(SRL)andmetcognition.Thesetheoriesworkfromthecentralpremisethateffectivelearnersareactiveagentswhoconstructknowledgebysettinggoals,analyzingtasks,planningstrategies,andmonitoringtheirunderstanding.
Socialcognitiveperspective
Socialcognitivetheoryisahighlyinfluentialfusionofbehavioral,cognitive,andsocialelementsthatwasinitiallydevelopedbyeducationalpsychologistAlbertBandura.Initsearlier,neo-behavioralincarnationcalled"sociallearningtheory,"Banduraemphasizedtheprocessofobservationallearninginwhichalearner'sbehaviorchangesasaresultofobservingothers'behavioranditsconsequences.Thetheoryidentifiedseveralfactorsthatdeterminewhetherobservingamodelwillaffectbehavioralorcognitivechange.Thesefactorsincludethelearner'sdevelopmentalstatus,theperceivedprestigeandcompetenceofthemodel,theconsequencesreceivedbythemodel,therelevanceofthemodel'sbehaviorsandconsequencestothelearner'sgoals,andthelearner'sself-efficacy.Theconceptofself-efficacy,whichplayedanimportantroleinlaterdevelopmentsofthetheory,referstothelearner'sbeliefinhisorherabilitytoperformthemodeledbehavior.
AnexperimentbySchunkandHanson,thatstudiedstudentsinsecondgradewhohadpreviouslyexperienceddifficultyinlearningsubtraction,illustratesthetypeofresearchstimulatedbysociallearningtheory.Onegroupofstudentsobservedasubtractiondemonstrationbyamathematicsteacher,andthenparticipatedinaninstructionalprogramonsubtraction.Asecondgroupobservedothersecondgradestudentsperformingthesamesubtractionprocedures,andthenparticipatedinthesameinstructionalprogram.Thestudentswhoobservedpeermodelsscoredhigheronasubtractionpost-test,andalsoreportedgreaterconfidenceintheirsubtractionability.Theresultswereinterpretedassupportingthehypothesisthatperceivedsimilarityofthemodeltothelearnerincreasesself-efficacy,leadingtomoreeffectivelearningofmodeledbehavior.Itissupposedthatpeermodelingisparticularlyeffectiveforstudentswhohavelowself-efficacy.
Constructivistperspective
Constructivismreferstoacategoryoflearningtheoriesinwhichemphasisisplacedontheagencyandpriorknowledgeofthelearner,andoftenonthesocialandculturaldeterminantsofthelearningprocess.Educationalpsychologistsdistinguishindividual(orpsychological)constructivism,identifiedwithPiaget'slearningtheory,fromsocialconstructivism.AdominantinfluenceonthelattertypeisLevVygotsky'sworkonsocioculturallearning,describinghowinteractionswithadults,morecapablepeers,andcognitivetoolsareinternalizedtoformmentalconstructs.
Vygotsky'sversionofconstructivisttheoryhasledtotheviewthatbehavior,skills,attitudes,andbeliefsareinherentlysituated,thatis,boundtoaspecificsocioculturalsetting.Accordingtothisview,thelearnerisacculturatedthroughsocialinteractionswithinacommunityofpractice.ElaboratingonVygotsky'stheory,JeromeBrunerandothereducationalpsychologistsdevelopedtheconceptof"instructionalscaffolding,"inwhichthesocialorinformationenvironmentofferssupportsforlearningthataregraduallywithdrawnasth
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