Pragmatics英语语用学专业知识Word格式文档下载.docx
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Pragmatics英语语用学专业知识Word格式文档下载.docx
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Pragmaticsisaperspectiveoflinguisticadaptation.
(Verschueren,1987)
Pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageusagefromafunctionalperspectiveandisconcernedwiththeprinciplesthataccountforhowmeaningiscommunicatedbythespeaker/writerandinterpretedbythelistener/readerinacertaincontext.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromsemanticsandsyntax.
Differentfromsemantics,pragmaticsstudiesthecontextualmeaning.Thisdistinctioncanbeseeninthefollowingexample:
Mike:
Whathappenedtothatbowlofcream?
Annie:
Catsdrinkcream.
Semantically,Annie'
sreplycanbeparaphrasedas"
Domesticfelinesconsumetheliquidfatofmilk"
butpragmatically,Annieprobablyimplies"
Thatbowlofcreamwasprobablyeatenbyourcat."
Inotherwords,semanticsfocusesonthemeaningthatcomesfromlinguisticknowledge,whilepragmaticsconcentratesonthoseaspectsofmeaningthatcannotbepredictedbylinguisticknowledgealoneandtakesintoaccountourknowledgeaboutthephysicalandsocialworld.
Pragmaticsalsodiffersfromsyntaxinthatpragmaticsisconcernedwiththeappropriatenessofnaturallyoccurringutterances.Forexample,thefourutterancesinthefollowingdialogueareallsyntacticallyincomplete,butpragmaticallytheyareall"
appropriate"
intheparticularcontext:
Jane:
Teaorcoffee?
Steve:
Coffee,please.
White?
Semiotics,alsocalledsemioticstudiesor(intheSaussureantradition)semiology,isthestudyofsignsandsignprocesses(semiosis),indication,designation,likeness,analogy,metaphor,symbolism,signification,andcommunication.Semioticsiscloselyrelatedtothefieldoflinguistics,which,foritspart,studiesthestructureandmeaningoflanguagemorespecifically.Semioticsisoftendividedintothreebranches:
∙Semantics:
Relationbetweensignsandthethingstowhichtheyrefer.
∙Syntactics:
Relationsamongsignsinformalstructures.
∙Pragmatics:
Relationbetweensignsandtheeffectstheyhaveonthepeoplewhousethem.
Likepragmatics,textanalysisisalsoconcernedwithlanguageusedinparticularcontexts.Itisthelinguisticanalysisofnaturallyoccurringconnectedspokenorwrittentexts.Inotherwords,itisthestudyoflinguisticunitslargerthansentencesorclauses.
1SpeechActTheory
AspointedoutbytheBritishphilosopherAustinin1962,sentencesarenotalwaysutteredjusttosaythings,butrather,theyareusedtodothings.Basedonthisassumption,AustinadvancedtheSpeechActTheory,whichisnowgenerallyviewedasoneofthebasictheoriesofpragmatics.Alllinguisticactivitiesarerelatedtospeechacts.Therefore,tospeakalanguageistoperformasetofspeechacts,suchasstatement,command,inquiryandcommitment.
1.1SpeechAct
Intraditionalsemantics,astatementfunctionseitherasadescriptionofsomethingorasastatementofafact.Thedescriptionorstatementiseithertrueorfalse.Philosophershavelongbeenconcernedmerelywiththeverifiabilityofthestatementandtheconditionswhichatruestatementmustmeet.Austin(1962)challengedthislong-conceivedbelief,pointingoutthatinrealcommunication,notallnaturallyoccurringdeclarativesentencesareusedtomaketrueorfalsestatements.Instead,theyfallintotwocategories:
constativeutterancesandperformativeutterances.
Constativeutterancesareverifiable,i.e.theycanbeeithertrueorfalse.Forexample,ourknowledgeofthepresentworldverifiesthetruthof(a)andthefalsityof(b):
(a)TheUnitedStatesislocatedintheWesternHemisphere,
(b)ThekingofFranceisbald.
Incontrast,performativeutterancescannotbeverified.Namely,suchsentencesarenotusedtomaketrueorfalsedescriptionsorstatementsbuttoperformcertainspeechacts,suchasdaring,warning,nominating,claiming,promisingandapologizing,asinthefollowingexamples:
Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.
Iwarnyouthattrespasserswillbeprosecuted.
InamethiscarrierRonaldReagan.
Asisrevealedintheaboveexamples,atypicalperformativeutterancehasseveralcharacteristics.
(1)Eachperformativeperformsacertainspeechact.Inanexplicitperformative,thespeechactisexplicitlycodedbyaperformativeverblikebet,warn,name,etc.
(2)Thesubjectisusuallythefirst-personsingularpronounI,referringtothespeaker.
(3)Thesentenceisalwaysapositivedeclarative.
(4)Theperformativeverbisalwaysinthefirst-personsingularnumber,thesimplepresenttenseandtheactivevoice.
(5)Theword"
'
hereby"
canbeusedinmostperformativesentences,asin“IherebynamethiscarrierRonaldReagan."
Aperformativeverbisonethatperformsanactionbyspeakingit,e.g.admit,declare,request.Verbslikeknow,thinkarenotperformativeverbsbecausetheydonotperformactionsbyspeakingthem.Moreover,tobeperformative,theverbmustdescribeanactionwhichisunderthecontrolofthespeaker.Accordingtothiscriterion,verbslikeapologize,congratulateareperformativewhileverbslikeamuse,flatterarenot,becausetheactionsofapologizingandcongratulatingareunderthecontrolofthespeaker,buttheactionsofbeingamusedandflatteredarenot.
Aperformativecanbeeitherexplicitorimplicit.Anexplicitperformativereferstoaspeechactcontainingaperformativeverbwhereasanimplicitperformativereferstoaspeechactwithoutaperformativeverb.
Inthissense,allutterancesnotonlymeanwhatevertheyliterallymeanbutalsoperformspecificactions(or"
dothings"
)throughhavingspecificforces.Thusanactionperformedbytheuseofanutterancetocommunicateiscalledaspeechact.
Whenadirectrelationshipexistsbetweenthestructureandcommunicativefunctionofanutterance,thespeechactisreferredtoasdirectspeechact.Incontrast,indirectspeechactreferstooneinwhichanindirectrelationshipexistsbetweenthestructureandthecommunicativefunctionofanutterance.Forexample,whenaspeakeruttersthedeclarative"
It'
scoldinhere!
"
tomakeastatement(i.e.describingthetemperatureintheplacewherethesentenceisuttered),itisadirectspeechact.However,insomesituations,thespeakermayaswellusethisdeclarativetomakearequest(e.g.requestingtheaddresseetoclosethewindow).Thenwesayitisanindirectspeechact.
Whenasentenceisuttered,thespeakerisperformingthreekindsofspeechactssimultaneously:
locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact
(1)Locutionaryact:
referringtotheutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.
(2)Illocutionaryact:
referringtothemakingofastatement,offer,promiseetc.inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit(orwithitsexplicitperformativeparaphrase).
(3)Perlocutionaryact:
referringtothebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstancesoftheutterance.
Thedifferencebetweenlocutionaryactandillocutionaryactisthattheformerreferstoutteringthesentencetoexpressitsliteralmeaningwhereasthelatterreferstoexpressingthespeaker'
sintentionbytheliteralmeaning.Oncethespeaker'
sintentionisperceived,understood,andactedupon,someeffectorchangemightbebroughtabout.Thentheperlocutionaryactisperformed.
Forexample,whenutteringtheimperative"
Turnleft"
thespeakerperformsthelocutionaryactofaskingtheaddresseetoperformtheintendedaction(i.e.turningleft).Whenthisimperativeisutteredinappropriatecircumstances,ithastheillocutionaryforceofordering,urging,oradvisingtheaddresseetoturnleft.Whentheillocutionaryforceisperceived,understoodandacteduponbytheaddressee,thentheperlocutionaryeffectisbroughtabout.
Amongthesekindsofspeechacts,pragmatistsaremostinterestedinillocutionaryact.Thisisbecauseillocutionaryactconformstothespeaker’sintentionandisthusthefocusforthestudyofverbalcommunication.
Theperformanceofspeechactsiscontrolledbytwokindsofrules:
regulativerulesandconstitutiverules.Regulativerulescontroltheactivitiesoftheaudience,e.g.communicationmanners.Theyarenotobligatoryintheperformanceofspeechacts.Constitutiverulesaretheobligatoryrulesthatcreateorconstitutetheactivityitself,e.g.therulesofagame.Withoutsuchrules,theactivityitselfnolongerexists.
Inordertoperformacertainperformativespeechact,particularconditionsshouldbemet.Theseconditionsareclassifiedbysomepragmaticiansintothefollowingfourkinds:
(1)Essentialconditions
Someperformativespeechactsshouldmeetcertainessentialconditionstobringabouttheirillocutionaryforce.Thisisparticularlytruefortheconventionalillocutionaryacts.Forexample,whenthespeakerorders/commandsthehearertoleavetheroom,thefollowingessentialconditionsshouldbemet:
thespeakerhastheauthoritytocommandwhilethehearerhastheobligationtocarryoutthiscommand.
(2)Propositionalconditions
Inordertohaveacertainillocutionaryforce,thepropositionalcontentofanutteranceshouldmeetthecondit
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