大学生论文旅游发展外文文献.docx
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大学生论文旅游发展外文文献.docx
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大学生论文旅游发展外文文献
MeasuringtheImpactofTourismuponUrbanEconomies:
AReviewofLiterature
KTHC-Knowledge,Technology,HumanCapital
UgoGasparino,ElenaBellini,BarbaraDelCorpoandWilliamMalizia
Abstract
Tourismisincreasinglyseenasapotentiallevertowardshigheconomicgrowth,measuredbothintermsofincomeandemployment.Inrecentyears,interestintourismhasspreadrapidlythroughoutmanysmallandmediumEuropeancities,whichpreviouslyhavenotconsideredthemselvesastouristdestinations.Thispaperreviewsandsummarizestheexistingliteratureontheeconomicassessmentoftourismwiththeobjectivesof,firstly,identifyingthemaincategoriesofimpactsand,secondly,constructinganinventoryofmethodologiesavailabletoassessthem.Wewillprogressstepbystep,startingfromthemostsimplisticapproachesandrelaxingassumptionsasweproceed.Firstly,weassumeastaticsetting,withsparecapacity.
Insuchasetting(partialequilibrium),pricesdonotrespondtodemandshocks:
onlyquantities(production,
incomeandjobs)adjust.Secondly,werelaxthisassumptionandassumethatthereisnosparecapacity:
pricesrespondtoincreasingdemand(generalequilibrium),leadingtoreallocationofresourcesacrosssectors.Wethenmovefromastatictoadynamicsettingandsurveythosecontributionsthatlookattherelationshipbetweentourismspecialisationandlong-rungrowth.
Keywords:
Tourism,EconomicImpacts,Input-OutputAnalysis,GeneralandPartial
EquilibriumAnalysis
1Thepartialequilibriumanalysis
Partialequilibriumanalysisassumesthatthereissparecapacityunemployedresourcesandthat,asaconsequenee,pricesdonotrespondtoincreasingdemand(perfectelasticsupply).Adjustmenttakesplaceonlythroughquantities(production,jobs,andthereforeincome).
Thebasicconceptofpartialequilibriumanalysisisthatofmultiplieralthough,'asnoticedbyArcher,?
thereisperhapsmoremisunderstandingaboutmultiplieranalysisthanalmostanyotheraspectoftourismresearch?
(Archer,1982).Multipliersmeasurethepresenteconomicperformaneeofthetourismindustryandtheeffectsofshort-runeconomicadjustmentstoachangeintheleveloftouristexpenditure.
Thedefinitionofmultiplier,intermsofKeynes,isunequivocal:
themultipliermeasuresthe
increaseineconomicactivitygeneratedinaneconomybyaunitincreaseintourism
expenditure.Atourismincomemultiplierisacoefficientthatexpressestheamountofincome
generatedinanareabyanadditionalunitoftouristspending:
forinstanee,iftouristsspendanextraEUR1millionintheareaandthisgeneratesEUR800,000ofincome,theKeynesian
ratio'multiplier,whereforexamplethe
total'incomegenerate
multiplieris0.81.However,alternativedefinitionsofmultiplierscanbefoundintourismliterature.Themostpopularoftheseistheuseofincomemultipliertendstobeexpressedastheratioofa
expenditure(seeSection1.1)tothe
direct'income.Dependingonwhatismeantby
income,threetypesof
ratio'multiplierscanbegenerated.
Despitethestrongassumptionsimplicitintheircalculation,multipliersarewidelyusedinpolicy-making.Theyareusedtostudytheimpactoftourismonbusinessturnover,incomeandemploymentandcanbeusedtocomparetheimpactofincreaseddemandonothersectorsoftheeconomyordifferentpolicyoptions.
Inwhatfollows,wefirstlyintroducetheeconomicmeaningofmultipliers,analysinghowthetouristexpenditureripplesthroughtheeconomy.Secondly,wepresenttwowidelyusedmethodologiestocalculatemultipliers.Finally,webrieflydiscussandcomparesomeoftheempiricalresults.
2Theeconomicmeaningofmultipliers
Inthedestinationtouristsspendtheirmoneytobuycertaingoodsandservices.Thisinitialtouristexpenditureisgenerallydirectedtoveryspecificsectorsoftheeconomy(lodging,restaurant,amusement,retailtrade,transportation—vhichwewillrefertoas
Althoughthecorrectmethodologywouldrequirethecalculationofthemultiplieratthemargin,
itiscommonpractice(mainlybecauseofdatalimitation)tocalculateincomeeffectsinterms
ofaverage,ratherthanmarginal,tourismexpenditureandtoassumethatthereisnosignificantdiffereneebetweenthem.Thisimpliesthattheeconomyhasavailablecapacitytomeetfuturedemand
Tourismindustriesandrepresentsadditionalrevenuesfortheseactivities.Thesearetheso-calleddirecteffects.
Partofthoserevenuesisusedtobuyintermediategoodsandservicesthatwillbeusedin
futureproductioncycles'(intermediatedemand).Aremainingpartwillbeusedtobuytheservicesofproductionfactors:
labour,capitalandland(wages,interestsandprofits,andrents
-grossvalueadded),topaytaxestocentralandlocalgovernments,orsaved.Inallcases,somemoneycouldgooutsidethearea,tointermediateproducersandproductionfactorslocatedoutsidethearea(i.e.,itleaks'outofthelocaleconomy).However,somewillremainwithinthearea:
localtourismindustrieswillhirenewlocal
workers(payingabiggernumberofwages)anddemandadditionalgoodsfromlocalproducers.Asaresult,localoutputincreases,employmentopportunitiesincreaseandlocalincomerises(duetotheincreaseinthenumberofwages).Thesearetheso-calledindirecteffects.
Theincreaseinemploymentbringstoanincreaseinthetotalincomeoflocalresidents.Partofthisincomeissavedandpartisspentinconsumptiongoods.Thisinturngeneratesadditionaldemandwhich,asbefore,translatesintoadditionalproductionandemployment(andsoon).Thesearetheso-calledinducedeffects.Indirectandinducedeffectsareoftencalledsecondaryeffects.Theeffectoftourismonthelocaleconomyisinflueneedbyafewkeyfactors:
Thecharacteristicsandthespendingpatternsofthelocaltourists,affectingthedirectimpactontheeconomy.Essentialfeatureshereinclude:
Thereasonfortravel(touriststravellingforculturalreasonsspendmore/lessandputmore/lesspressureonnaturalandculturalresourcesthansun&beachtourists);
Thelengthofstay(touristsstayingforthedayarelikelytospendasmallershareoftotalexpenditureinlocallyproducedgoods);Theaccommodationchosen(hotelsaremoreexpensivethancampsites).
Thecharacteristicsofthetourismindustriesandofthelocaleconomy.Keyfeatureshereincludetheabilityoflocaleconomytosatisfythedemandoftourismindustries,aswellasthesizeandthesharesoftourismindustriesthatarelocallyowned.Theextentoftheindirecteffectsdependsonthesizeoftheareaunderstudy(e.g.,municipal,regional,national)andontheextenttowhichbusinessfirmsintheareasupplyeachotherwithgoodsandservices(themorelikelythemorediversifiedandinterlinkedisthelocaleconomy).Ingeneral,thesmallerthescaleoftheeconomyandthehighertheshareofinitialexpenditurethatleaksoutofthelocalarea,thefeweraretheselinkagesandthesmalleraretheindirecteffects.Moreover,themagnitudeofindirectandinducedeffectsdependsontheshareofcapital,landandlabourthatislocallyowned.Forinstanee,smallfamily-ownedhotelsandrestaurantsaremorelikelytobuylocalintermediateinputsthanchainhotelsandtouristvillages.Iffactorsarelocallyowned,theirremunerations-profits,rentandwages—villstaylocallyandlocalcommunitywill
stronglybenefitfromthem.
3.Direct,indirectandinducedbenefitsandeffectsontheeconomy
triggeredbytourist
SpendingSeveraltypesofmultiplierarecommonlyused:
Sales(ortransactions)multiplierreferstotheeffectonbusinessturnover(valueofbusinessturnovercreatedbyaunitaryincreaseintourismexpenditure);Outputmultiplierreferstotheeffectonthelevelofoutputoftheeconomy.Withrespecttothesalesmultiplieritdoesnotonlytakeintoaccounttheimpactonturnoveroflocalbusinesses,butalsoanychangesinthelevelofstockstheyhold.Thiscanbeusefulinidentifyingpotentialsupplyshortfalls,orbottlenecks;Governmentrevenuemultiplierreferstotheeffectsongovernmentalrevenuesfromallsources(e.g.,directandindirecttaxation,duties,licensesandfees);Incomemultiplierreferstotheeffectonincomes(salesnetofintermediateconsumption,includingwages,salariesandprofit).Thisiscommonlyregardedasthemostimportantindicatoroftheeconomicperformaneeoftourismindustry.Incomemultipliersvarydependingonwhethertheyincludeornotincomesaccruingtononnationalsresidingintheregionunderinvestigation,andwhethertheyincludeornotincomeaccruingtogovernments.Themultipliercanbemeasuredasdisposableincome-heincomeavailabletoindividualsto
spendorsave,whichisnetoftax-orvalueaddedincome-heincomewhichincludestax
andotherexpenditureswhicharedefinedaccordingtonationalincomeaccountingrules;
Employmentmultiplierreferstotheeffectonemployment.Itisusuallyderivedfromtheoutputorincomemultipliers.Itcanbeexpressedastheratioofthenumberoftotal'dditional
jobs(e.g.,directandindirectordirectandsecondary)toeitherthenumberofdirectjobs(ratiomultiplier)'ortotheinitialtouristexpenditure(Keynesianmultiplier).
Employmentcanbemeasuredintermsoffulltimeequivalentjobs,ortheactualnumberofjobsincludingpart-timejobs.
SupposeadditionaltouristexpenditureofEUR1
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