哲学.docx
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哲学.docx
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哲学
ARISTOTLE(Translatedby1.A.K.ThomsonandHughTredennick)
NicomacheanEthics
BOOKI
Tounderstandwhatmoralgoodnessiswemuststudythesoulojman
...Sincehappinessisanactivityofthesoulinaccordancewithperfectvirtue,
wemustexaminethenatureofvirtue;forperhapsinthiswayweshallbebetter
abletoformaviewabouthappinesstoo.Besides,thetruestatesmanisthought
ofasamanwhohastakenspecialpainstostudythissubject;forhewantsto
makehisfellow-citizensgoodandlaw-abidingpeople(wehaveanexampleof
thisinthelaw-giversofCreteandSparta,andanyotherswhohaveshownsimi-
larqualities).Andifthisinvestigationisapartofpoliticalscience,clearlyour
inquirywillbeinkeepingwiththeplanthatweadoptedattheoutset.
Thegoodnessthatwehavetoconsiderishumangoodness,obviously;forit
wasthegoodJormanorhappinessformanthatwesetouttodiscover.Butby
humangoodnessismeantgoodnessnotofthebodybutofthesoul,andhappinessalsowedefineasanactivityofthesou!
.Thisbeingso,itisevidentthatthe
statesmanoughttohavesomeacquaintancewithpsychology,justas,adoctor
whointendstotreattheeyemusthaveaknowledgeofthebodyasawhole.
Indeedthestatesman'sneedisgreaterthanthedoctor's,inasmuchaspoliticsis
abetterandmorehonourablesciencethanmedicine.Butthebestkindofdoc-
torstakeagooddealoftroubletoacquireaknowledgeofthebody;sothe
statesmantoomuststudythesoul,butwithaviewtopolitics,andonlysofaras
issufficientforthequestionsthatweareinvestigating;fortoexploreitsnature
ingreaterdetailwouldpresumablybetoolaboriousforourpresentpurpose.
Theseveralfacultiesojthesouldistinguished
Someaspectsofpsychologyareadequatelytreatedindiscourseselsewhere,and
weshouldmakeuseoftheresults:
e.g.thatthesoulispartrationalandpartirrational(whethertheseareseparatelikethepartsofthebodyoranythingelsethat
isphysicallydivisible,orwhetherliketheconvexandconcaveaspectsofthe
circumferenceofacircletheyaredistinguishableastwoonlyindefinitionand
281bid.424.
430SectionSevenwhatOughtWeToDo?
thought,andarebynatureinseparable,makesnodifferenceforourpresent
purpose).Oftheirrationalsoulonepartseemstobecommon,viz.thevegetative:
Imeanthecauseofnutritionandgrowth;becauseonecanassumesuchafaculty
ofsoulineverythingthatreceivesnourishment,eveninembryos;andthissame
facultytoointhefullydevelopedcreature,becausethisismorereasonablethan
tosupposethatthelatterhasadifferentone.Thustheexcellenceofthisfacultyis
evidentlycommonandnotconfinedtoman;becausethispartorfacultyseemsto
bemostactiveinsleep,whenthegoodandthebadareleasteasytodistinguish
(hencethesaying"forhalftheirlivesthehappyarenodifferentfromthe
wretched").Thisisanaturalconsequence,becausesleepisasuspensionofthat
functionofthesoulbywhichitisdistinguishedasgoodandbad-exceptthatto
acertainlimitedextentsomeofthestimulireachthesoul;thisiswhatmakesthe
dreamsofdecentpeoplebetterthanthoseoftheordinaryman.Butenoughof
thissubject;wemaydismissthenutritivesoul,becauseofitsverynatureithasno
partinhumangoodness.
Butthereseemstobeanotherelementofthesoulwhich,whileirrational,is
inasensereceptiveofreason.Takethetypesofmanwhichwecallcontinent
andincontinent.Theyhaveaprinciple-arationalelementintheirsouls-
whichwecommend,becauseiturgesthemintherightdirectionandencouragesthemtotakethebestcourse;butthereisalsoobservableinthemanother
element,bynatureirrational,whichstrugglesandstrainsagainsttherational.
Justasinthecaseofthebodyparalysedlimbs,whenthesubjectchoosesto
movethemtotheright,swingawayinthecontrarydirectiontotheleft,so
exactlythesamehappensinthecaseofthesoul;fortheimpulsesoftheincontinenttaketheminthecontrarydirection."Butinbodiesweseewhatswings
away,whereasinthecaseofthesoulwedonot."Probablyweshouldbelieve
neverthelessthatthesoultoocontainsanirrationalelementwhichopposesand
runscountertoreason-inwhatsenseitisaseparateelementdoesnotmatter
atall.Butthistoo,aswesaidseemstobereceptiveofreason;atanyrateinthe
continentmanitisobedienttoreason,andispresumablystillmoreamenable
inthetemperateandinthebraveman,becauseinthemitisincompletehar-
monywiththerationalprinciple.
Evidently,then,theirrationalpartofthesoulalsoconsistsoftwoparts.The
vegetativehasnoassociationatallwithreason,butthedesiderativeandgener-
allyappetitivepartdoesinawayparticipateinreason,inthesensethatitis
submissiveandobedienttoit(thisisthesenseoflogonecheininwhichwespeak
of"takingaccount"ofone'sfatherorfriends,notthatinwhichwespeakof
"havinganaccount"ofmathematicalpropositions).Thattheirrationalpartis
insomewaypersuadedbyreasonisindicatedbyouruseofadmonition,andof
reproofandencouragementofallkinds.If,however,oneshouldspeakofthe
appetitivepartofthesoulasrationaltoo,itwillbetherationalpartthatis
dividedintwo:
onerationalinthepropersenseofthewordandinitself,the
otherinthesensethatachildpaysattentiontoitsfather.
Virtue,too,isdividedintoclassesinaccordancewiththisdifferentiationof
thesoul.Somevirtuesarecalledintellectualandothersmoral;Wisdomand
AristotleNicomacheanEthics431
UnderstandingandPrudenceareintellectual,LiberalityandTemperanceare
moralvirtues.Whenwearespeakingofaman'scharacterwedonotdescribe
himaswiseorunderstanding,butaspatientortemperate.Wedo,however,
praiseawisemanonthegroundofhisstateofmind;andthosestatesthatare
praiseworthywecallvirtues.
BOOKII
Moralvirtues,likecrafts,areacquiredbypracticeandhabituation
Virtue,then,isoftwokinds,intellectualandmoral.Intellectualvirtueowes
bothitsinceptionanditsgrowthchieflytoinstruction,andforthisveryreason
needstimeandexperience.Moralgoodness,ontheotherhand,istheresultof
habit,fromwhichithasactuallygotitsname,beingaslightmodificationofthe
wordethos.Thisfactmakesitobviousthatnoneofthemoralvirtuesisengenderedinusbynature,sincenothingthatiswhatitisbynaturecanbemadeto
behavedifferentlybyhabituation.Forinstance,astone,whichhasanatural
tendencydownwards,cannotbehabituatedtorise,howeveroftenyoutryto
trainitbythrowingitintotheair;norcanyoutrainfiretoburndownwards;nor
cananythingelsethathasanyothernaturaltendencybetrainedtodepartfrom
it.Themoralvirtues,then,areengenderedinusneitherbynorcontraryto
nature;weareconstitutedbynaturetoreceivethem,buttheirfulldevelopment
inusisduetohabit.
Again,ofallthosefacultieswithwhichnatureendowsuswefirstacquirethe
potentialities,andonlylatereffecttheiractualization.(Thisisevidentinthe
caseofthesenses.Itwasnotfromrepeatedactsofseeingorhearingthatwe
acquiredthesensesbuttheotherwayround:
wehadthesesensesbeforewe
usedthem;wedidnotacquirethemastheresultofusingthem.)Butthevirtues
wedoacquirebyfirstexercisingthem,justashappensinthearts.Anythingthat
wehavetolearntodowelearnbytheactualdoingofit:
peoplebecome
buildersbybuildingandinstrumentalistsbyplayinginstruments.Similarlywe
becomejustbyperformingjustacts,temperatebyperformingtemperateones,
bravebyperformingbraveones.Thisviewissupportedbywhathappensincity-
states.Legislatorsmaketheircitizensgoodbyhabituation;thisistheintention
ofeverylegislator,andthosewhodonotcarryitoutfailoftheirobject.Thisis
whatmakesthedifferencebetweenagoodconstitutionandabadone.
Again,thecausesormeansthatbringaboutanyformofexcellencearethe
sameasthosethatdestroyit,andsimilarlywithart;foritisasaresultofplaying
theharpthatpeoplebecomegoodandbadharpists.Thesameprinciple
appliestobuildersandallothercraftsmen.Menwillbecomegoodbuildersasa
resultofbuildingwell,andbadonesasaresultofbuildingbadly.Otherwise
therewouldbenoneedofanyonetoteachthem:
theywouldallbeborneither
goodorbad.Nowthisholdsgoodalsoofthevirtues.Itisthewaythatwebehave
inourdealingswithotherpeoplethatmakesusjustorunjust,andthewaythat
432SectionSevenWhatOughtWeToDo?
webehaveinthefaceofdanger,accustomingourselvestobetimidorconfi-
dent,thatmakesusbraveorcowardly.Similarlywithsituationsinvolvingdesires
andangryfeelings:
somepeoplebecometemperateandpatientfromonekind
ofconductinsuchsituations,otherslicentiousandcholericfromanother.Ina
word,then,likeactivitiesproducelikedispositions.Hencewemustgiveour
activitiesacertainquality,becauseitistheircharacteristicsthatdeterminethe
resultingdispositions.Soitisamatterofnolittleimportancewhatsortofhabits
weformfromtheearliestage-itmakesavastdifference,orratherallthe
differenceintheworld.
Inapracticalscience,somuchdependsonparticularcircumstancesthatonlygeneralrulescanbegiven
Sincethebranchofphilosophyonwhichweareatpresentengagedisnot,like
theothers,theoreticalinitsaim-beca
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