GRE Lecture Selected Reading of GRE.docx
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GRE Lecture Selected Reading of GRE.docx
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GRELectureSelectedReadingofGRE
Theevolutionofsexratioshasproduced,inmost
plantsandanimalswithseparatesexes,approxi-
matelyequalnumbersofmalesandfemales.Why
shouldthisbeso?
Twomainkindsofanswershave
5beenoffered.Oneiscouchedintermsofadvantageto
population.Itisarguedthatthesexratiowillevolve
soastomaximizethenumberofmeetingsbetween
individualsoftheoppositesex.Thisisessentiallya
“groupselection”argument.Theother,andinmy
10viewcorrect,typeofanswerwasfirstputforwardby
Fisherin1930.This“genetic”argumentstartsfrom
theassumptionthatgenescaninfluencetherelative
numbersofmaleandfemaleoffspringproducedby
anindividualcarryingthegenes.Thatsexratiowill
15befavoredwhichmaximizesthenumberofdescen-
dantsanindividualwillhaveandhencethenumber
ofgenecopiestransmitted.Supposethatthepopula-
tionconsistedmostlyoffemales:
thenanindividual
whoproducedsonsonlywouldhavemoregrand-
20children.Incontrast,ifthepopulationconsisted
mostlyofmales,itwouldpaytohavedaughters.If,
however,thepopulationconsistedofequalnumbers
ofmalesandfemales,sonsanddaughterswouldbe
equallyvaluable.Thusaone-to-onesexratiois
25theonlystableratio;itisan“evolutionarilystable
strategy.”AlthoughFisherwrotebeforethemathe-
maticaltheoryofgameshadbeendeveloped,his
theoryincorporatestheessentialfeatureofagame—
thatthebeststrategytoadoptdependsonwhat
30othersaredoing.
SinceFisher’stime,ithasbeenrealizedthatgenes
cansometimesinfluencethechromosomeorgamete
inwhichtheyfindthemselvessothatthegametewill
bemorelikelytoparticipateinfertilization.Ifsucha
35geneoccursonasex-determining(XorY)chromo-
some,thenhighlyaberrantsexratioscanoccur.But
moreimmediatelyrelevanttogametheoryarethesex
ratiosincertainparasiticwaspspeciesthathavea
largeexcessoffemales.Inthesespecies,fertilizedeggs
40developintofemalesandunfertilizedeggsintomales.
Afemalestoresspermandcandeterminethesexof
eacheggshelaysbyfertilizingitorleavingitunfer-
tilized.ByFisher’sargument,itshouldstillpaya
femaletoproduceequalnumbersofsonsand
45daughters.Hamilton,notingthattheeggsdevelop
withintheirhost—thelarvaofanotherinsect—and
thatthenewlyemergedadultwaspsmateimmediately
anddisperse,offeredaremarkablycogentanalysis.
Sinceonlyonefemaleusuallylayseggsinagiven
50larva,itwouldpayhertoproduceonemaleonly,
becausethisonemalecouldfertilizeallhissisterson
emergence.LikeFisher,Hamiltonlookedforan
evolutionarilystablestrategy,buthewentastep
furtherinrecognizingthathewaslookingfora
55strategy.
Amysteriousphenomenonistheabilityof
over-watermigrantstotraveloncourse.Birds,
bees,andotherspeciescankeeptrackoftime
withoutanysensorycuesfromtheoutside
world,andsuch“biologicalclocks”clearlycon-
tributetotheir“compasssense.”Forexample,
theycanusethepositionoftheSunorstars,
alongwiththetimeofday,tofindnorth.But
compasssensealonecannotexplainhowbirds
navigatetheocean:
afteraflocktravelingeastis
blownfarsouthbyastorm,itwillassumethe
propernortheasterlycoursetocompensate.Per-
haps,somescientiststhought,migrantsdeter-
minetheirgeographicpositiononEarthbyce-
lestialnavigation,almostashumannavigators
usestarsandplanets,butthiswoulddemandof
theanimalsafantasticmapsense.Researchers
nowknowthatsomespecieshaveamagnetic
sense,whichmightallowmigrantstodetermine
theirgeographiclocationbydetectingvariations
inthestrengthoftheEarth’smagneticfield.
TillieOlsen’sfictionandessayshavebeen
widelyandrightlyacknowledgedasmajorcon-
tributionstoAmericanliterature.Herworkhas
beenparticularlyvaluedbycontemporaryfem-
(5)inists.YetfewofOlsen’sreadersrealizethe
extenttowhichhervisionandchoiceofsubject
arerootedinanearlierliteraryheritage—the
traditionofradicalpoliticalthought,mostly
socialistandanarchist,ofthe1910’sand1920’s,
(10)andtheOldLefttraditionofthe1930’s.Idonot
meanthatonecanadequatelyexplaintheelo-
quenceofherworkintermsofitspolitical
origins,orthatleft-wingpoliticswerethesingle
mostimportantinfluenceonit.Mypointisthat
(15)itscentralconsciousness—itsprofoundunder-
standingofclassandgenderasshapinginflu-
encesonpeople’slives—owesmuchtothat
earlierliteraryheritage,aheritagethat,in
general,hasnotbeensufficientlyvaluedby
mostcontemporaryliterarycritics.
Extraordinarycreativeactivityhasbeencharacterized
asrevolutionary,flyinginthefaceofwhatisestablished
andproducingnotwhatisacceptablebutwhatwill
becomeaccepted.Accordingtothisformulation,highly
creativeactivitytranscendsthelimitsofanexistingform
andestablishesanewprincipleoforganization.How-
ever,theideathatextraordinarycreativitytranscends
establishedlimitsinmisleadingwhenitisappliedtothe
arts,eventhoughitmaybevalidforthesciences.Differ-
encesbetweenhighlycreativeartandhighlycreativesci-
enceariseinpartfromadifferenceintheirgoals.Forthe
sciences,anewtheoryisthegoalandendresultofthe
creativeact.Innovativescienceproducesnewproposi-
tionsintermsofwhichdiversephenomenacanbe
relatedtooneanotherinmorecoherentways.Suchphe-
nomenaasabrilliantdiamondoranestingbirdarerele-
gatedtotheroleofdata,servingasthemeansforfor-
mulatingortestinganewtheory.Thegoalofhighly
creativeartisverydifferent:
thephenomenonitself
becomesthedirectproductofthecreativeact.Shake-
speare’sHamletisnotatractaboutthebehaviorof
indecisiveprincesortheusesofpoliticalpower;noris
Picasso’spaintingGuernicaprimarilyapropositional
statementabouttheSpanishCivilWarortheevilsof
fascism.Whathighlycreativeartisticactivityproducesis
notanewgeneralizationthattranscendsestablishedlim-
its,butratheranaestheticparticular.Aestheticparticu-
larsproducedbythehighlycreativeartistextendor
exploit,inaninnovativeway,thelimitsofanexisting
form,ratherthantranscendthatform.
Thisisnottodenythatahighlycreativeartistsome-
timesestablishesanewprincipleoforganizationinthe
historyofanartisticfield;thecomposerMonteverdi,
whocreatedmusicofthehighestaestheticvalue,comes
tomind.Moregenerally,however,whetherornota
compositionestablishesanewprincipleinthehistoryof
musichaslittlebearingonitsaestheticworth.Because
theyembodyanewprincipleoforganization,some
musicalworks,suchastheoperasoftheFlorentine
Camerata,areofsignalhistoricalimportance,butfew
listenersormusicologistswouldincludetheseamongthe
greatworksofmusic.Ontheotherhand,Mozart’sThe
MarriageofFigaroissurelyamongthemasterpiecesof
musiceventhoughitsmodestinnovationsareconfined
toextendingexistingmeans.Ithasbeensaidof
Beethoventhathetoppledtherulesandfreedmusic
fromthestiflingconfinesofconvention.Butaclose
studyofhiscompositionsrevealsthatBeethovenover-
turnednofundamentalrules.Rather,hewasanincom-
parablestrategistwhoexploitedlimits—therules,forms,
andconventionsthatheinheritedfrompredecessors
suchasHaydnandMozart,HandelandBach—instrik-
inglyoriginalways.
OfHomer’stwoepicpoems,theOdysseyhasalways
beenmorepopularthantheIliad,perhapsbecauseit
includesmorefeaturesofmythologythatareaccessible
toreaders.Itssubject(touseMaynardMack’scate-
gories)is“life-as-spectacle,”forreaders,divertedbyits
variousincidents,observeitsheroOdysseusprimarily
fromwithout;thetragicIliad,however,presents“life-as-
experience”:
readersareaskedtoidentifywiththemind
ofAchilles,whosemotivationsrenderhimanotparticu-
larlylikablehero.Inaddition,theIliad,morethanthe
Odyssey,suggeststhecomplexityofthegods’involve-
mentinhumanactions,andtotheextentthatmodern
readersfindthiscomplexityaneedlesscomplication,theIliadislesssatisfyingthantheOdyssey,withitssimpler‘schemeofdivinejustice.Finally,sincetheIliadpresents
ahistoricallyverifiableaction,Troy’ssiege,thepoem
raiseshistoricalquestionsthatareabsentfromthe
Odyssey’sblithelyimaginativeworld.
JeanWagner’smostenduringcontributiontothe
studyofAfro-Americanpoetryishisinsistencethatitbe
analyzedinareligious,aswellassecular,frameofrefer-
ence.Theappropriatenessofsuchanapproachmay
seemself-evidentforatraditioncommencingwithspiri-
tualsandowingitsearlyforms,rhythms,vocabulary,
andevangelicalfervortoWesleyanhymnals.Butbefore
WagnerasecularoutlookthatanalyzedBlackpoetry
solelywithinthecontextofpoliticalandsocialprotest
wasdominantinthefield.
ItisWagnerwhofirstdemonstratedtheessentialfusionofracialandreligiousfeelinginAfro-American
poetry.Thetwo,heargued,formasymbioticunionin
whichreligiousfeelingsareoftenappliedtoracialissues
andracialproblemsareoftenprojectedontoameta-
physicalplane.Wagnerfoundthismosteloquentlyillus-
tratedintheBlackspiritual,wherethedesireforfree-
dominthisworldandthehopeforsalvationinthenext
areinextricablyintertwined.
RogerRosenblatt’sbookBlackFiction,inattempt
ingtoapplyliteraryra
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