北科大语言学内部教学教案8考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案8考研必备
Lecture8Pragmatics
Nextwewillspendtwoweeksonthediscussionofpragmatics,orlanguageinuse.Ourdiscussionwillfallintothreeaspects:
Firstwe’llmakecleartheconcernsofpragmatics,thenwe’lldealwithonebyonetwomajortheoriesinpragmatics:
thespeechacttheoryandtheconversationalimplicaturetheory.Wewon’tbedealingwithpost-Griceandevelopmentinthisclass.Ifyou’reinterestedinthispart,readityourself.
8.1Concernsofpragmatics
Aswehavementionedinthediscussionofsemantics,pragmaticsstudiesmeaningincontext.Thismeaningwillbesomewhatdifferentfromthedictionarymeaning.Nowlet’sfirstreviewthedifferentmeaningsofmeaningwehavediscussed:
Hemeanttowrite.–intended
Agreenlightmeansgo.–indicates
Healthmeanseverything.–hasimportance
What’sthemeaningoflife?
–point
Whatdoesitmeantoyou?
–convey
Whatdoes“ghost”mean?
–refertointheworld
Ineverydayuseoflanguage,wearemorefrequentlyconcernedwiththelasttwomeanings,butwhenweuselanguageinaspecificcontext,wecanmeanmorethanthat.Lookatthefollowingsentencesandexpressions:
Mothershoutstotheson:
“Dog!
”
Wifesaystothehusband:
“It’scoldhere.”
Girlsaystoboyfriend:
“Mybagisheavy.”
“Janet!
Donkeys!
”(DavidCopperfield)
Inthesesentences,firstthespeakerdoesmeanthedictionaryorconceptualmeaningofthewords,buttheymeansomethingmorethanthat.Theyhavesomespecialintentioninspeakingthesewords.Thenwecometothedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning.
8.1.1Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning
Sentenceisagrammaticalconcept.Itisanabstract,self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext.Thereforesentencemeaningisanabstractandintrinsicproperty.Itisdecontextualized.SobysentencemeaningweexplorewhatXmeans.Incontrast,byutterancemeaning,weexploreWhatyoumeanbyX.utteranceissomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose.Thereforeutterancemeaningisconcreteandcontext-dependent.ItisalsoreferredtoasSpeaker’smeaningorcontextualmeaning.
Thenifwereviewtheexpressionswehavejustcovered,wecanseethedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning.Bysaying“dog’,themothermeansafurrydomesticanimalthatiskeptnowadaysasapet.Thisisthesentencemeaning.However,theutterancemeaningis:
Becareful!
Similarly,wecanfindthedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaningwiththeotherexamples.
Therefore,aquestionweareconcernedwithis:
Howdowerecognizeutterancemeaning?
Utterancemeaningmaybeseenasthesumtotalofsentencemeaningandcontext.Thenwecometoanotherimportantconceptinpragmatics:
context.
8.1.2Context
Contextisusedhereasacovertermofbothlinguisticknowledgeandextra-linguisticknowledgeinvolvedinlanguageuseandlanguageunderstanding.Linguisticknowledgeincludesknowledgeofthelanguagethatisusedaswellasknowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore.Thisisalsoreferredtoaslinguisticcontext.Extralinguisticknowledgeincludesknowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationandknowledgeabouteachother.Knowledgeabouttheworldingeneralissometimesroughlyreferredtoasbackgroundknowledge,includingcommonsense,socialnormsandconversationrules.Let’slookatthefollowingexamplesandseehowbackgroundknowledgegetsinvolvedinunderstandingthemeaningofanutterance:
ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhada
goodtimeswimmingandsurfing.
A:
Doyoulikerugby?
B:
IamaNewZealander.
A:
YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.
B:
MyEnglishisverypoor.
Knowledgeaboutthesituationisusuallyreferredtoassituationalknowledgeorsituationalcontext,includingtime,place,topicformalityandrelationbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Thefollowingexamplesillustratehowthesamesentencecanresultindifferentutterancemeaningindifferentsituations:
●吃过了吗?
1、两个熟人打招呼。
2、说话人手里拿着包子。
3、说话人与听话人约好去超市,催促动身。
4、说话人与听话人密谋害人。
●甲:
做啥呢?
乙:
看手机呢。
甲:
我早都看过了。
乙:
手机,我要买手机。
Thenextexampleshowshowmutualknowledgesharedbythespeakerandhearerinfluencestheunderstandingofutterancemeaning:
A:
Areyougoingtotheseminar?
B:
It’sonlinguistics.
A:
Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?
B:
Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.
8.1.3Context&languageuse
Nextwe’lllookathowcontextaffectslanguageuse.Contextdeterminesthehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohimaswellasgoverningthespeaker’suseoflanguage.Canyougivemesomeexamples?
Thinkaboutthefollowingexamples:
●In-classconversationvs.after-class
●Borrowingapenvs.200yuan
●Borrowingsthfromyourclassmatevs.fromyourteacher
●Talkingtoatwo-year-oldvs.anadult
8.1.4DefinitionofPragmatics
Havingmadeclearallthenotions,finallywecometothedefinitionofpragmatics.Pragmaticsmaybedefinedas:
●Thestudyoflanguageinuse.
●Thestudyoflanguageproduction&languagecomprehension.
●Thestudyofmeaningincontext.
●Thestudyoflanguageinrelationtoitsusers.
●Thestudyofspeaker’smeaning,utterancemeaning&contextualmeaning.
8.2Speechacttheory言语行为理论
TheSpeechActtheorywasfirstputforwardbyJohnAustin,anOxfordprofessor,inHowtoDoThingswithWords(1962).ThetheorywaslaterdevelopedbyAnAmericanphilosopher,JohnSearle,inSpeechAct:
AnEssayinthePhilosophyofLanguage(1975).Byspeechacts,werefertoactionsperformedbymeansofutterance.
8.2.1Constativesvs.performatives表述句与施为句
Austindiscoveredthatthesentencesweusefallintotwodifferenttypes:
constativesandperformatives.Thetermconstativesisusedtorefertosentencesthatdescribewhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Forexample,achemistryteacherinademonstrationofanexperimentmaysay:
Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.Whensayingthesewords,theteachermustdotheactualpouring.Otherwisehemightbeaccusedofmakingafalsestatement.Thusconstativesareverifiable.Theycaneitherbetrueorfalse.Incontrast,performativesdonotdescribethings.Theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteranceofthesesentences,instead,is,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.That’swhytheyarecalledperformatives.Let’slookatthefollowingexamples:
a.InamethisshiptheQueenElizabeth.
b.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.
c.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.
d.Ipromisetofinishitintime.
e.Iapologize.
f.Ideclarethemeetingopen.
g.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.
Whenthespeakerspeaksthesesentences,heisatthesametimedoingtheactiondenotedbytheitalicizedverb.Andtheseverbsarecalledperformativeverbs.
Youmusthavenoticedthat,forthesesentencestobeabletoperformanaction,someconditionsmustbemade.Forexample,theonewhonamestheshipshouldbetheowneroftheshiporanofficialinasuitablepositiontodoso.IfIjuststandbyashipandsaysomesimilarthing,itwillnotperformthenamingaction.Also,forthebequeathingactiontobeappropriate,thespeakermusthaveawatch.Andinthecaseofthepromiseandapology,thespeakermustsincerelyhavetheintentiontodothepromisedthingorsincerelyfeelsorryforwhathashappened.Theseconditionsthatmaketheperformativesappropriateorfelicitousarecalledfelicityconditions(恰当条件).
,
Austinsuggestedthefollowingfelicityconditions:
A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,and
(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.
B.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.
C.Veryoften,(i)therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,and(ii)mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.
Whentheseconditionsareviolated,thespeechactwillbecomeinfelicitous.Example:
marryingceremonyorship-launchingceremony.
However,Austinsoondiscoveredthattheconditionsonlyapplytosomecases.Forexample,thereisnoconventionalproceduretoproduceaperformativeofapologizing.Atthesametime,constativesmayalsobeinfelicitousintheseways.Forexample,asentencewehavequoted“ThepresentKingofFranceisbald”isinfelicitous,becausethereisnosuchentityas“thepresentKingofFrance”.Thisissimilartosaying“Ibequeathmywatchtoyou”whenthespeakeractuallyhasnowatchatall.
Asforthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofperformativesentences,Austinnoticesthattypicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoiceandperformativeverbs.Butthesearenotabsolutecriteriaandtherearealwaysexceptions.Forexample,therearepassiveperformativeslike“Dogsmustbecarriedontheescalator”andininformalsituations,othermoodsandtensesarepossible.Forexample,“Sorry”insteadof“Iapologize”.
Thereforewecanseethatit’shardtodistinguishperformativesfromconstativeseitherbythefelicityconditionsorbygrammaticalorlexicalcriteria.Thedistinctionbetweenthemtwocannotbemaintained.SolaterAustintotallyabandonedthisideaofperformativesandconstatives.
8.2.2Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact言外行为理论
WhenAustindroppedthedistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformatives,hebegantothinkaboutanotherquestion:
inwhatsensetosaysomethingistodosomething.Austinsuggeststhreebasicsensesinwhichinsayingsomethingoneisdoingsomething,andthreekindsofactsareperformedsimultaneously:
1)Locutionaryact:
theutteranceofasentencewithspecificsenseandreference;
2)Illocutionaryact:
themakingofastatement,
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