毕业论文外文翻译研究储罐事故.docx
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毕业论文外文翻译研究储罐事故.docx
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毕业论文外文翻译研究储罐事故
重庆科技学院学生毕业设计(论文)
外文译文
学院安全工程
专业班级安全
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Astudyofstoragetankaccidents
JamesI.Changa,Cheng-ChungLinb
【Abstract】Thispaperreviews242accidentsofstoragetanksthatoccurredinindustrialfacilitiesoverlast40years.FishboneDiagramisappliedtoanalyzethecausesthatleadtoaccidents.Correctiveactionsarealsoprovidedtohelpoperatingengineershandlingsimilarsituationsinthefuture.Theresultsshowthat74%ofaccidentsoccurredinpetroleumrefineries,oilterminalsorstorage.Fireandexplosionaccountfor85%oftheaccidents.Therewere80accidents(33%)causedbylightningand72(30%)causedbyhumanerrorsincludingpooroperationsandmaintenance.Othercauseswereequipmentfailure,sabotage,crackandrupture,leakandlinerupture,staticelectricity,openflamesetc.Mostofthoseaccidentswouldhavebeenavoidedifgoodengineeringhavebeenpracticed.
Keywords:
FishboneDiagram;Accidentstatistics,fireandexplosion
1.Introduction
Storagetanksinrefineriesandchemicalplantscontainlargevolumesofflammableandhazardouschemicals.Asmallaccidentmayleadtomillion-dollarpropertylossandafewdaysofproductioninterruption.Alargeaccidentresultsinlawsuits,stockdevaluation,orcompanybank-ruptcy.Inlast50years,tradeorganizationsandengineeringsocietiessuchasAmericanpetroleuminstitute(API),Americaninstituteofchemicalengineers(AIChE),Americansocietyofmechanicalengineers(ASME),andnationalfireprotectionassociation(NFPA)havepublishedstrictengineeringguidelinesandstandardsfortheconstruction,materialselection,designandsafemanagementofstoragetanksandtheiraccessories(AIChE,1988;1993;API,1988;1990;ASME,2004;NFPA,1992;UL,1986;1987).Mostcompaniesfollowthosestandardsandguidelinesinthedesign,constructionandoperation,buttankaccidentsstilloccur.Learningfromthepasthistoryisdefinitelyimportantforthefuturesafeoperationofstoragetanks.
Thepurposeofthispaperistocategorizethecausesthatleadto242tankaccidentsoccurredinlast40years.Thefishbonediagram(Thecauseandeffectdiagram)inventedbyDrKaoruIshikawa(IshikawaandLu,1985)isusedtosummarizetheeffectsandthecausesthatcreateorcontributetothoseeffects.Wehopethatthisworkwillbebeneficialtotankoperatorsandengineers.
2.Overallstatistics
Theinformationof242tankaccidentsreviewedinthisworkwascollectedfrompublishedreports(MarchandMclennan,1990;1997;2002;PerssonandLonnermark,2004),books(CPC,1983;2002;Pekalski,1997;Lees,1996),CSBincidentnews(USCSB,2000-2003)anddatabases(UQ,2001;USCHSIB,2004;ICHemE,2002;PAJ,2004;USNOAO,1999).Therewere114occurredinNorthAmerica,72inAsiaand38inEurope(Table1).USAhad105accidentsreviewedbecauseoftheeasyaccessibilitytoaccidentinformation.AsindicatedinTable2,accidentsoccurredmorefrequentlyatpetroleumrefinerieswith116cases(47.9%).Thesecondmostfrequentlyinvolvedplacewasterminalsandpumpingstations(64cases,26.4%).Only25.7%ofaccidentsoccurredinpetrochemicalplants(12.8%),oilfields(2.5%),andothertypesofindustrialfacilities(10.3%)suchaspowerplants,gasplants,pipelines,fertilizerplants,etc.Crudeoil,gasolineandoilproductssuchasfueloil,diesel,etc.weremajorcontents(Table3).Theatmosphericexternalfloatingrooftankwasthemostfrequenttypeandtheatmosphericconetoptankwasthesecondmostfrequenttype.Bothtypeswereusedextensivelyforthestorageofcrudeoil,gasoline,Firewas
anddieseloil(Table4).themostfrequenttypeoflosswith145casesandexplosionwasthesecondmostfrequenttypeoflosswith61casesasindicatedinTable5.Fireandexplosiontogetheraccountedfor85%oftotalcases.Oilspillandtoxicgas/liquidreleasewerethethirdandthefourthmostfrequent,respectively.Thetankbodydistortionandtheworker'sfallingonlyoccurredafewtimes.Propertylosseswererarelyreportedandtheinformationwasdifficulttofind.Theaveragepropertylossofthe10largeststoragetankdamagelosseslistedinTable6is114millioninJanuary2002dollars.
3.Causesofaccidents
AsindicatedinTable7,lightningwasthemostfrequentcauseofaccidentandthemaintenanceerrorwasthesecondmostfrequentcause.Therestwereoperationalerror,equipmentfailure,sabotage,crackandrupture,leakandlinerupture,staticelectricity,openflamesetc.Toillustratecausesandeffects,afishbonediagramasshowninFig.1wasdeveloped.AfishbonediagramasshowninFig.2wasalsodevelopedforthepreventionofaccidents.
3.1.Light}ci}cg
Therearetwomajorcausesoflightningrelatedfires.Thefirstoneisadirectstrikeandthesecondisthesecondaryeffectssuchastheboundcharge,theelectromagneticpulse,theelectrostaticpulseandtheearthcurrents(Carpenter,1996).Adirectlightningstrikezonehasaradiusbetween10and10m.Whenastoragetankisinthedirectstrikezone,flammablevaporsexposedtotheheatingeffectorthestrokechannelmaybeignited.Amongthe80lightningaccidents,adozentankswerehitdirectlyresultinginroofblowingoffandmassivedestruction.AlightingstriketoafloatingrooftankcontainingnaphthaonOctober24,1995inGilacap,Indonesiaresultedinfiresandpropertydamagesof38milliondollarsinJanuary,2002dollars(MarchandMclennan,1997).Becauseofthisincident,therefineryoperatedatapproximately70%ofcapacityasofJuly1995,andwasnotexpectedtooperateatfullcapacityuntilMarch1997.
AstormcellandstructuresinducesachargeonthesurfaceoftheearthprodectlngThechargedareavariesinfromthesizefromsurfaceunderthecell.15to150sqkm,whichismuchlargerthanadirectstrikezone.Theriskofsecondaryeffectsrelatedfireisdirectstrike.Afterthenearbyfarhigherthantheriskofa
strike,awell-groundedtankwillstilltakeonthestormcellinducedcharge,butitreleasesthechargefaster.
Therimsealofafloatingrooftankisthemostlikelyplacetobeignitedinathunderstorm.Mostrimsealfireswereextinguishedinafewhours,buta1989lightningstrikeinDarEsSalaam,Tanzanialedtoa3600rimsealfirearoundan80,000barrelsexternalfloatingroofstoragetankcontainingcrudeoilthatlastedforfivedays(PerssonandLonnermark,2004).ArimfireonaSingaporestoragetankin1991escalatedtoafullsurfaceandbundfire.Tightsealingtopreventtheescapeofliquidsorvaporsisdefinitelynecessaryforstoragesafety.Ventvalveisalsoalikelyplacetobeignited.Flamearrestorshouldbeinstalled.
Theexistinglightningprotectionstandardsforthepetroleumindustryprovidelittlehelp.TheconventionalradioactivelightningprotectioninstalledonaNigerian670,000-barrelcrudeoiltankdidnotpreventthetankfromthelightningstrikein1990(Carpenter,1996).TheNationalFireProtectionPublicationonlightningprotection,NFPA78/780,deibscrestheproblemandindustrialstandardpolicies,butprovidesnopositiveprotectionsolutions.
32.Maihtehahceerror
Weldingisresponsiblefor18accidents.Catastrophicfailuresofabovegroundatmosphericstoragetankscanoccurwhenflammablevaporsinthetankexplode.Ina1995accident,duringaweldingoperationontheoutsideofatank,combustiblevaporsinsidetwolarge,30-ft.diameterby30-ft.high,storagetanksexploded(USEPA,1997).Ina1986accidentinThessaloniki,Greece,sparksfromaflameofacuttingtorchignitedflammablevaporsresultinginafirespreadingtootherareas(FewtrellandHirst,1998).Thefireextendedforsevendaysresultinginthedestructionof
10outof12crudeoilstoragetanksandfivedeaths.BothOSHA'sregulationsconcerninghotworkandNFPA'sstandardsonweldingshouldbereviewed.Hazardreductionmeasuresincludeproperhot-workproceduressuchasobtainingahotworkpermit,havingafirewatchandfireextinguishingequipmentpresent,andpropertestingforexplosivity;coveringandsealingalldrains,vents,man-ways,openflangesandallsewers(USEPA,1997).
Mechanicalfractionsalsogeneratesparksthatigniteflammablevapors.A1988accidentinMemphis,Tennesseeanda1989accidentinSandwich,Massachusetts,USAoccurredduringinsulationinstallation.OnOctober28,1999,asparkfromamanliftwithtwoemployeesinPoncaCity,Oklahoma,USAignitedvapors(Persson&Lonnermark,2004).Theignitiontoretheinsulatedconeroofintoseveralpiecesresultingafullsurfacefire.Afiredestroyedanalmostemptyrefinerygasolinetankduringa2002tankinspectioninSuperior,Wisconsin(Persson&Lonnermark,2004).In1983,threeCrinto,Nicaraguaworkerswerekilledinanexplosionwhilerepairingapurificationductontopofanoilstoragetank.Ina1994accident,duringagrindingoperationonatankholdingpetroleumbasedsludge,thetankwaspropelledupward,injuring17workersandspillingitscontentsoveracontainmentbeamintoariver(USEPA,1997).Ina2000incident,naphthatrappedinthesealignitedduringacleaningoperationofanaphthastoragetankatanAnchorage,Alaskapetroleumtankfarm,(Persson&Lonnermark,2004).In1973,40workersataStatenIsland,NewYorkCitygasplantwerekilledinanexplosionwhilecleaninganemptyLNGtank(Juckett,2002).Theexplosionwascausedbytheignitionofcleaningchemicals.
Electricsparksandshocksalsoigniteflammablevaporsorliquidsresultinginfireorexplosionalso.A1984accidentataKaohsiung,Taiwanrefineryanda2002accidentataLanjou,Chinarefinerywere
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