语用学的课件.pptx
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语用学的课件.pptx
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PragmaticsTeachingMaterialbyShermanZHENGSECTIONISurveyChapter1DefinitionsandbackgroundIWhatispragmatics?
Readp.3-4Pragmaticscanbeusefullydefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaningsinsituations(Leech,1983).Definitionsandbackground
(1)Whenadiplomatsay“yes”,hemeans“perhaps”,whenhesays“perhapshemeans“no”;andwhenhesays“no”heisnodiplomatWhenaladysays“no”,shemeans“perhaps”,whenshesays“perhaps”shemeans“yes”andwhenshesays“yes”sheisnolady.(Voltaire)DefinitionsandbackgroundIITheoriginandthehistoricalvagariesofthetermpragmaticsThemodernusageofthetermpragmaticsisattributabletothephilosopherCharlesMorris(1983),whowasconcernedtooutlinethegeneralshapeofascienceofsigns,orsemiotics.Withinsemiotics,Morrisdistinguishedthreedistinctbranchesofinquiry:
syntactics(orsyntax),beingthestudyof“theformalrelationofsignstooneanother”,semantics,thestudyof“therelationofsignstotheobjectstowhichthesignsareapplicable”(theirdesignata),andpragmatics,thestudyoftherelationofsignstointerpreters”(Levinson,1983)DefinitionsandbackgroundIIISemanticsandpragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofallthoseaspectsofmeaningnotcapturedinasmenatictheory.Or,asGazdar(1979:
2)hasputit,assumingthatsemanticslimitedtothestatementoftruthconditions.Pragmaticshasasitstopicthoseaspectsofthemeaningofutteranceswhichcannotbeaccountedforbystraightforwardreferencetothetruthconditionsofthesentencesuttered.Putcrudely:
PRAGMATICS=MEANINGTRUTHCONDITIONS.Definitionsandbackground
(2)Whatdoesxmean?
(3)Whatdidyoumeanbyx?
Semanticstraditionallydealswithmeaningasadyadicrelation,asin
(2),whilepragmaticsdealswithmeaningasatriadicrelation,asin(3).Thusmeaninginpragmaticsisdefinedrelativetoaspeakeroruserofalanguage,whereasmeaningsinsemanticsisdefinedpurelyasapropertyofexpressionsinagivenlanguage,inabstractionfromparticularsituations,speakers,orhearers.Definitionsandbackground(4)Donkeymeans“ass”.(5)WhenMissTrowoodsaidJanet!
Donkeys!
shemeantbythisremarkthatJanetwastodrivethedonkeysoffthelawn.Wemaynoteaboutmeaning(5)that(i)Itinvolvesthespeakersintentiontoconveyacertainwhichmay,ormaynot,beevidentfromthemessageitself.Definitionsandbackground(ii)Consequently,interpretationbythehearerofthismeaningislikelytodependoncontext;and(iii)Meanings,inthissense,issomethingwhichisperformend,ratherthansomethingthatexistsinteraction(themeaningbeing”negotiated”betweenspeakerandheareronthebasisoftheirmutualknowledge.)Thefollowingthenareoutwardcriteriaforjudgingwhetheraparticulardiscussionofmeaningtakesusintotherealmofpragmatics:
Definitionsandbackground(a)Isreferencemadetoaddressersoraddressees,orspeakersorhearers?
(b)Isreferencemadetotheintentionofthespeakerortheinterpretationofthehearer?
(c)IsreferencemadetoContext?
(d)Isreferencemadetothekindofactoractionperformedbymeansoforbyvirtueoflanguage?
Iftheanswertooneormoreofthesequestionsisyes,thereisreasontosupposethatwearedealingwithpragmatics.DefinitionsandbackgroundIVAspectofspeechsituations1.Addressersoraddressees2.ThecontextofanutteranceOnewayofembarkingupontheanalysisofcontextistoaskwhatkindsofknowledgeafluentspeakerofalanguagemustpossessinordertoproduceandunderstandcontextuallyappropriateandcomprehensibleutterancesinthatlanguage.Letuslistsomeofthese:
Definitionsandbackground(i)Eachoftheparticipantsmustknowhisroleandstatus.(ii)Theparticipantsmustknowwheretheyareinspaceandtime.(iii)Theparticipantsmustbeanbletocategorizethesituationintermsofitsdegreeofformality.Definitionsandbackground(iv)Theparticipantsmustknowthatmediumisappropriatetothesituation.(v)Theparticipantsmustknowhowtomaketheirutterancesappropriatetothesubject-matter;andtheimportanceofsubject-matterasadeterminantintheselectionofonedialectoronelanguageratherthananotherinbilingualormultilingualcommunities.(vi)Theparticipantmustknowhowtomaketheirutteranceappropriatetotheprovinceordomaintowhichthesituationbelongs.DefinitionsandbackgroundV.CurrentinterestinpragmaticsThereareanumberofconvergentreasonsforthegrowthofinterestinpragmatics.Someoftheseareessentiallyhistorical:
theinterestdevelopedinpartasareactionorantidotetoChomskystreatmentoflanguageasanabstractdevice,ormentalability,dissociablefromtheuses,usersandfunctionsoflanguage.DefinitionsandbackgroundButtherehavebeenpowerfulmotivationsofadifferentkind.Inthefirstplaceasknowledgeofthesyntax,phonologyandsemanticsofvariouslanguageshasincreased,ithasbecomeclearthattherearespecificphenomenathatcanonlynaturallybedescribedbyrecoursetocontextualconcepts.Ontheonehand,varioussyntactisrulesseemtobeproperlyconstrainedonlyifonereferstopragmaticconditions,similarlyformattersofstressandintonation.Theperformancetheoryofpragmaticsisassignedthejoboffilleringouttheacceptablesentences.Alternatively,pragmaticsandotherlinguisticcomponentsorlevelscanbeallowedtointeract.DefinitionsandbackgroundTherearealsoanumberofgeneralmotivationsforthedevelopmentofpragmatictheory.Oneofthemostimportantoftheseisthepossibilitythatpragmaticscaneffectaradicalsimplificationofsemantics.Thehopeisbasedonthefactthatpragmaticprinciplesoflanguageusagecanbeshownsystematicallyto“readin”toutterancesmorethantheyconventionallyorliterallymean.Definitionsandbackground(6)Sometencentpiecesarerejectedbythisvendingmachine.Anotherpowerfulandgeneralmotivationfortheinterestinpragmaticsisthegrowingrealizationthatthereisaverysubstantialgapbetweencurrentlinguistictheoriesoflanguageandaccountsoflinguisticcommunication.Itisbecomingincreasinglyclearthatasemantictheoryalonecangiveusonlyaproportionofageneralaccountoflanguageunderstanding.Definitionsandbackground(7)A:
IcouldeatthewholeofthatcakeB:
Oh,thanks.Finally,anotherveryimportantgeneralmotivationfortherecentinterestinpragmaticsisthepossibilitythatsignificantfunctionalexplanationscanbeofferedforlinguisticfacts,mostrecentlinguisticexplanationshavetendedtobeinternaltolinguistictheory:
thatistosay,somelinguisticfeatureisexplainedbyreferencetootherlinguisticfeatures,ortoaspectsofthetheoryitself.Butthereisanotherpossiblekindofexplanation:
somelinguisticfeatureismotivatedbyprinciplesoutsidethescopeoflinguistictheory.DefinitionsandbackgroundRegularityPeopletendtobehaveinfairlyregularwayswhenitcomestousinglanguage.Letsanalyzethesesentences:
1.Howareyou?
-Fine,thankyou.2.Howareyou?
-PraisetoGod.3.Goodmorning,teacher.4.Haveyoueaten?
DefinitionsandbackgroundWealsohavelearnedthatsomelinguisticformsinthelanguagewithoutlearningthepragmaticsofhowthoseformsareusedinaregularpatternbysocialinsiders,lookatthesesentences:
(1):
A:
Icouldeatanox.B:
Dinnerwillbereadyinaminute.
(2):
A:
Hi,John!
B:
Hi!
Howareyoudoing?
DefinitionsandbackgroundA:
Say,whatareyoudoing?
B:
Well,weregoingout.Why?
A:
Oh,Iwasjustgoingtosaycomeout.(3)A:
Doyouknowwhatthatwordmeans?
B:
Dontyouhaveadictionary?
Letsanalyzethesesentencesfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics:
Definitionsandbackground
(1)Peterboughtacar.
(2)ItwasPeterwhoboughtacar.(3)ItwasacarthatPeterbought.(4)WhatPeterboughtwasacar.DefinitionsandbackgroundThepragmaticwastebasketExercises:
Analyzethemeaningof“well”inthefollowingsentences
(1)A:
Howlonghaveyouknownhim?
B:
Well.Ishouldsayaboutfiveyears.
(2)A:
Doyouhaveanumbrellawithyou?
Itsraining.B:
Well,Ineverthoughtitwouldrain!
Definitionsandbackground(3)A:
Howdoyoulikethisdress?
B:
Well,thecolourisnice.(4)A:
Doyoulikechambermusic?
B:
Well,no,notreally.DeixisanddistanceIWhatisdexis?
Thesinglemostobviouswayinwhichtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcontextisreflectedinthestructuresoflanguagesthemselves,isthroughthephenomenonofdexis.ThetermisborrowedfromtheGreekwordfor“pointing”or“indicating”.Theuseofdemonstrative,firstandsecondpersonpronouns,tense,specifictimeandplaceadverbslikenow,then,here,andthere,and,avarietyofothergrammaticalfeaturesaretieddirectlytothecircumstancesofutterance.Deixisanddistance
(1)Illbebackinanhour.Becausewedontknowwhenitwaswritten,wecannotknowwhenthewriterwillreturn.Or,supposewefindabottleinthesea,andinsideitamessagewhichreads:
Deixisanddistance
(2)Meetmehereaweekfromnowwithastickaboutthisbig.Wedonotknowwhotomeet,whereorwhentomeethimorher,orhowbigasticktobring.SupposeHarryjustwantedtosaythefollowingsentense,thepowerwassuddenlyoff:
DeixisanddistanceListen,Imnotdisagreeingwithyoubutwithyouandnotaboutthisbutaboutthis.Inthedarkness,wecannotgetanydeicticinformation,afterhearingthesentence,wecannotunderstandwhatissaid.Anotherexample:
包装纸上注明的“当天产品,保证新鲜”DeixisanddistanceEssentially,deixisconcernsthewaysinwhichlanguageencodeorgrammaticalizefeaturesofthecontextofutteranceorspeechevent,andthusalsoconcernswaysinwhichtheinterpretationofutterancesdependsontheanalysisofthatcontextofutterance.DeixisanddistanceDeixisbelongswithinthedomainofpragmatics,becauseitdirectlyconcernstherelationshipbetweenthestructureoflanguagesandthecontextinwhichtheyareused.DeixisanddistanceIITwokindsofusageofdeicticexpressionsBydeicticexpressionwemeanthoselinguisticunitsormorphemes
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